1.2.5 What are the organic chemical groups that compose carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are also known as sugars (starches, cellulose and other substances are also carbohydrates). Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones (polyalcohol aldehydes or polyalcohol ketones). Polyhydroxylated aldehydes are called aldoses and polyhydroxylated ketones are called ketoses.

1.2.6 Describe the vitamins b1,a biological role and mineral substances of food.

Thiamin has a central role in energy-yielding metabolism. Composed of a substituted pyridine and thiazole ring.

Other Names: Vitamin B1 Thiamin RDA: Men: 1.2 mg/dayWomen: 1.1 mg/day

Function: Part of coenzyme TPP (thiamin pyrophosphate) used in energy metabolism

Food Sources: ÷Whole-grain, fortified, or enriched grain products ÷Moderate amounts in all nutritious food ÷Pork paddy grains, cereals,meat,yeast,honey, nuts

Destruction: Easily destroyed by heat

Deficiency Disease: Beriberi (wet with edema; dry with muscle wasting)

Deficiency Symptoms (often due to heavy alcohol consumption): ÷Enlarged heart, cardiac failure ÷Muscular weakness ÷Apathy, poor short-term memory, confusion, irritability ÷Anorexia, weight loss

Toxicity Symptoms: None reported

1.2.7. Describe the structure and mechanism of action of enzymes

The protein catalyst (enzyme) may be part of a multi-subunit complex, and/or may transiently or permanently associate with a Cofactor (e.g. adenosine triphosphate). Catalysis of biochemical reactions in the cell is vital due to the very low reaction rates of the uncatalysed reactions at room temperature and pressure. A key driver of protein evolution is the optimization of such catalytic activities via protein dynamics.

The mechanism of enzyme catalysis is similar in principle to other types of chemical catalysis. By providing an alternative reaction route the enzyme reduces the energy required to reach the highest energy transition state of the reaction. The reduction of activation energy (Ea) increases the amount of reactant molecules that achieve a sufficient level of energy, such that they reach the activation energy and form the product. As with other catalysts, the enzyme is not consumed during the reaction (as a substrate is) but is recycled such that a single enzyme performs many rounds of catalysis.

How does a catalyst work?

The explanation of what happens lies in the fact that most chemical reactions that RELEASE ENERGY (exothermic reactions) require an INPUT of some energy to get them going. The initial input of energy is called the ACTIVATION ENERGY

1.3.1. What is the molecular formula for glucose.Aerobic oxidation of glucose in a cell. A sequence of reactions up to formation of the pyruvate

Glucose

• carbohydrate form used by the body, referred to as “blood sugar”

• basic sub-unit of other larger carbohydrate molecules

• found in fruits, vegetables, honey

6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂

The molecular formula for glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆. Structurally, glucose is a hexagonal ring formed by one atom of oxygen and five atoms of carbon. A hydroxyl radical and a hydrogen atom are bound to each carbon atom of the ring, except for one of the carbon atoms bound to the oxygen atom of the ring, which binds to a CH₂OH radical. Concerning spatial position, hydroxyl bonds alternate sides. Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport. Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have an aldehyde group at one end.