jost_j_t_kay_a_c_thorisdottir_n_social_and_psychological_bas

Afterlife belief

effect of worldview, 256–57 and fear of death, correlational

research, 245–47

and fear of death, experimental research, 247–59, 251–52, 254–57, 255t

and fear of death, motivated reasoning account, 243–44, 244f, 248–49, 258–60

and fear of death, terror management theory account, 245, 249, 258

and religious beliefs, correlational research, 245–47, 247 n. 1

and religious beliefs, experimental research, 248–49, 251–52, 255–56

and religious beliefs, motivated reasoning account, 244–45, 244f

Study 1, methods, 250–51, 250–51 nn. 3–4

Study 1, results, 251–52, 257–58 Study 2, methods, 252–54 Study 2, results, 254–58

See also Religious beliefs Agreeableness, 321, 322–23, 339 Altruistic suicide, 376 n. 2 Ambivalent sexism

Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), 446, 451

ambivalent sexism theory (AST), overview, 17, 445–49

competitive gender differentiation, definition, 446

complementary gender differentiation, definition, 446

dominative paternalism, definition, 446 gender differentiation domain, 446 heterosexual relations domain, 446–47,

449–53

in heterosexual romantic relations, 446–47, 449–53

Nebraska Men’s Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage, 444–45

paternalism as system-justification strategy, 447–48

patriarchy domain, 446 protective paternalism, definition,

446

sex roll spillover, 456–57 system-justifying beliefs, 449, 452,

457–58

in the workplace, 453–57

See also Benevolent sexism (BS); Hostile sexism (HS)

American flag

activation of egalitarianism and decreased hostility, 71

activation of ideological information, 57

impact on accessibility of the concept of power, 61–62, 64

impact on desire for powerful roles, 63–64

impact on materialistic views, 65–67 increased presence since terrorist

attacks of September 2001, 60 linkage with aggression, 68–70 use as prime in experiments, 60

American moral exceptionalism individualism and ethic of individual

merit, 28, 32–37, 46–47 meritocracy in America, 33, 35–37 moral absolutism, 29, 38–40 overview, 27–28, 46–47

religion’s importance despite economic development, 28, 31–32, 241

traditional moral values, 28, 37–38 unique cultural heritage of America,

30–32

See also Puritan–Protestant influence in America

American National Election Studies (ANES), 481, 483–84, 493–96, 497–500, 502

American nationalist ideology aggression, 67–70

association with desire for powerful roles, 63–64

association with the concept of power, 61–62, 64

automaticity of ideology, 53–54 characteristics of nationalistic

ideology, 57–59 development of ideological

knowledge, 72–73

evidence for implicit American nationalist ideology, 59–60, 71–72

generality of American research to other nations, 74–75

materialism, 65–67

news exposure as moderator, 59, 74 party affiliation and ideology, 53–54,

73–74

support for status quo, 72 American traditionalism, 28, 29, 37–40 Anchoring effects, 88, 88 n. 2, 98 ANES (American National Election

Studies) data, 481, 483–84, 493–96, 497–500, 502

Anomie, 375, 394, 397 Apologies by governments for

injustices. See Responses to historical injustices

Assimilation, 87 n. 1

Atheists, American attitudes on, 32 Authoritarian personality dimension,

293–94, 316

See also Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)

Authority

authority relationships, 376–78, 377 n. 4

charismatic authority, 377 n. 5 decision acceptance and authority,

118–19, 359 definition, 376 power, 376

rational authority, 377, 377 n. 5 traditional authority, 377, 377 n. 5 See also Unit-ideas of sociology

Autism, 406

Automatic associations, 30, 42, 47 Automaticity and the status quo,

97–99

Automaticity of ideology activation by perceptions of

injustice, 56

of American nationalist ideology, 53–54

conservative and liberal automatic reactions to social groups,

488, 501–2

overview, 11–12, 14, 55–56 See also Implicit processes

Belief in a just world (BJW)

American beliefs compared to other countries, 36

attributions that legitimize situations, 109–10

challenge of traumatic events, 163 decreased political and social activism,

109 definition, 108

evaluations of people in positive or negative situations, 110–11

greater perception of fairness, 111–12, 117, 118, 120, 433

individual differences, 108–9 interaction of sex bias with belief in a

just world, 113–16, 115f justification of the status quo, 108–12 just world scales for assessing

individual differences, 108–9 moderating effect of ambiguity,

113–17, 115f, 120 overview, 14, 107–9, 120

perception of deservedness, 110–12 perceptions of discrimination, 112–16,

117, 120

Protestant belief in earthly punishments and rewards, 36

relationship to personal entitlement, 437–38

responses to historical injustices, 466 See also System-justifying beliefs (SJBs)

Benevolent sexism (BS)

association with traditionalism, 450 as control strategy to keep women in

check, 450 definition, 308, 445–46

in heterosexual romantic relations, 446–47, 449–53

ideals of women, 171, 357 justification and maintenance of

gender hierarchy, 449, 452 link to mate preferences, 450–53

patronizing discrimination, 448, 454–55

and political orientation, 448–49 prescriptive and proscriptive ideals,

450–51

as system-justification strategy, 17–18, 447–48, 457–58

in the workplace, 453–55

See also Ambivalent sexism; Hostile sexism (HS)

Biases

automatic associations and implicit biases and stereotypes, 30, 42, 47

biased perception of reformers, 94–95 changes within people leading to

perceptions of moral decline, 403–4, 406–11, 416–17, 418

implicit biases and stereotypes in cultural cognition, 30, 42, 47

interaction of sex bias with belief in a just world, 113–16, 115f

production of illusion of moral decline, 403–4, 406–11, 416–17, 418

status quo bias, 93–94 See also Gender bias

Big Five personality dimensions agreeableness, 321, 323

Big Five Inventory assessment, 327–28

conscientiousness, 322

dual process model of ideological attitudes, 298, 300, 301t

extraversion, 321, 322 neuroticism, 321, 323 OCEAN acronym, 321 openness, 321–22, 324

and political orientation, 321–23 right-wing authoritarianism (RWA),

298, 300, 301t

social dominance orientation (SDO), 300, 301t

BJW. See Belief in a just world (BJW) Blocking, 90–91

Bottom-up approaches to ideology, 5–6 BS. See Benevolent sexism (BS)

Charismatic leaders, 224–25, 232, 377 n. 5

Chinese Exclusion Act, 472, 473 Cognitive closure

Core Predispositions Study, 273 n. 1, 274–75, 280–87, 282t, 284t

definition, 268

interaction with political expertise, 276–78, 281–84, 285

political conservatism association with high need for closure, 269, 276–80, 281–84, 285–87

relationship to epistemic motivation, 268–70

relationship to ideological orientation, 269–70, 276–80, 281–84

theory of lay epistemics, 268–69 UCLA Student Survey, 273–74, 275–80, 277t, 278f, 278 n. 2

Cognitive dissonance theory, 159–60, 161, 211, 434

Cognitive-experiential self-theory, 196–98

Cognitive processing advantages, 86–91

Cognitive reference points, 89, 98 Community relationships

communal relationships, 374 community, overview, 374–76 ethic of community, 380 exchange relationships, 374 Gemeinschaft relationships, 375,

376–77, 379, 383, 396 Gesellschaft relationships, 375, 377,

379, 383, 394

group-based moralities, 372, 376, 376 n. 3

See also Unit-ideas of sociology Competitive gender differentiation,

definition, 446

Complementary gender differentiation, definition, 446

Conscientiousness

Big Five personality dimensions, 322 political orientation and regional

differences, 324, 331, 333, 338–39 regional differences in personality,

317

Conservative political ideology. See Political conservatism

Corrective justice, 136–38, 136 n. 5, 138 Counterfactual thinking, 91

Death penalty, 40, 269

Democratic countries, numbers of, 3 Deserving and deservedness, 110–12,

169, 428–31

See also Entitlement Distributive justice

compromise theory, 133, 135

Distributive justice (continued) distributive–redistributive

distinctions, 130, 132, 134–35, 139–40, 141 n. 8

diversity in perception and interpretation, 353

egalitarian theories, 133, 138–39, 144–45, 147–48

Rawlsian maximin principle, 133–34, 136

relationship to corrective justice, 136–38, 136 n. 5

as source of legitimizing information, 352

utilitarian theories, 133–34, 135 Dominative paternalism, definition,

446

Dual process model of ideological attitudes

Big Five personality dimensions, 298, 300, 301t

causes of prejudice or outgroup negativity, 304, 305–6

early research on two dimensions of ideological attitudes, 296, 297t

effect of social context on ideological attitudes, 299, 299f, 302

effects of RWA and SDO on sociopolitical behavior, 303–8

foreign policy, 305 legitimizing myths, 299f, 306–8 overview, 292–93, 298–99, 309 political parties, 305

research on different bases of RWA and SDO, 296–98

RWA and SDO as independent dimensions, 294–98

support for attack on Iraq, 303 system justification, 306, 308 See also Ideological orientation;

Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA); Social dominance orientation (SDO)

Durkheimians, 128, 138, 371–72, 393

Ecological fallacy, 326 End of ideology, 5–7 Entitlement

deserving and deservedness, 110–12, 169, 428–31

effect of group status on entitlement beliefs, 428–31, 439–40

ethnic differences in entitlement, 438

gender differences in entitlement to pay, 428–30

inputs, definition, 428 meritocratic beliefs, 435, 439 outcomes, definition, 428 overview, 17, 427–28, 439–40

paradoxical contentment displayed by working women, 429–30

relationship of group status and entitlement to pay, 428–30

relationship to belief in a just world, 437–38

role of system-justification beliefs in differences in perceived group entitlement, 433

salience of system-justification beliefs and personal entitlement, 434–37 social comparison processes, 430–31

status construction theory, 428 strategies for reducing group

differences in entitlement, 437–38 system-justification beliefs

relationship to differences in personal entitlement, 433–34

Epistemic motivation

Core Predispositions Study, 273 n. 1, 274–75, 280–87, 282t, 284t

definition, 267, 284

effect of political expertise, 271–72, 284–87

relationship to ideological selfplacement, 267

relationship with ideology, 268–70, 284–87

theory of lay epistemics, 268–69 UCLA Student Survey, 273–74, 275–80, 277t, 278f, 278 n. 2

and uncertainty, 188

See also Cognitive closure Eugenics movements, 415–16 Exchange relationships, 374 Experimental philosophy, 129 Exposure to news media. See News

exposure Extraversion

Big Five personality dimensions, 321, 322

political orientation and regional differences, 322–23, 331, 334, 339

regional differences in personality, 317

Fairness. See Perceived fairness False consciousness, 355

Feature positive effect, 89–90

French Revolution, 373, 445

Gemeinschaft relationships, 375, 376–77, 379, 383, 396

Gender bias

ambivalent sexism in the workplace, 453–57

backlash effects, 455

interaction of sex bias with belief in a just world, 113–16, 115f

paradoxical contentment displayed by working women, 429–30

sex roll spillover, 456–57 system justification and gender

inequality, 165–66, 169, 170–71 working mothers, 455–56

See also Ambivalent sexism; Benevolent sexism (BS); Biases; Hostile sexism (HS); Stereotypes and prejudices

Gesellschaft relationships, 375, 377, 379, 383, 394

Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 465 Group status

effect on belief in individual mobility, 107, 117

effect on entitlement beliefs, 428–31, 439–40

ideological self-placement and selfreported warmth ratings for lowand high-status groups, 491–93, 491 nn. 4–5, 492f

implicit and explicit preferences for higher or lower status groups using ideological self-placement, 486–88, 487f, 488 n. 1

political orientation and implicit preferences for high-status groups, 482–83

relationship of group status and entitlement to pay, 428–30

See also Entitlement; Intergroup attitudes

Head Tax, 472–73, 474–75

Historical injustices. See Responses to historical injustices

Hostile sexism (HS) definition, 308, 446

justification and maintenance of gender hierarchy, 449, 457–58 link to mate preferences, 451–52

and political orientation, 448–49 in the workplace, 453, 455–57 See also Ambivalent sexism;

Benevolent sexism (BS) Hypothetical-society paradigm

advantages of method, 130–32, 151–52

clarification of rival theoretical positions, 138–43

compromise theory, 133, 135

data on intergenerational mobility, 143–45, 147–49

distributive–redistributive distinctions, 130, 132, 134–35, 139–40, 141 n. 8

effects of trade on national sovereignty, 145–46, 149–51

egalitarian theories of distributive justice, 133, 138–39, 144–45, 147–48

meritocracies, 130, 133–37, 139, 143–44

overview, 130–31, 151–52 racial and gender gaps, 136 Rawlsian maximin principle,

133–34, 136

reflective equilibrium function, 132 safety nets, 127, 132, 133, 138, 140 studies on social justice, 133–38 system critics and social inequality,

146–49

system justification theory research, 139–43, 140–41 nn. 6–9

thought experiments, 128–32, 131 n. 2

use for system justification theory research, 12

utilitarian theories of distributive justice, 133–34, 135

value-pluralist model, 128, 138–39, 142, 144, 148–50

value trade-offs between equality and efficiency, 133–36, 144, 149, 152

veil of ignorance, 130 n. 1

IAT. See Implicit Association Test (IAT) Ideological knowledge

association with political icons and symbols, 56–57

automatic manner of influence, 55 development of, 72–73

explicit measurement, 59

Ideological knowledge (continued) implicit influence, 56, 57, 70 news exposure as moderator, 59

Ideological orientation

association with need for closure, 269, 276–80, 277t, 278f, 285–87

Core Predispositions Study, 273 n. 1, 274–75, 280–87, 282t, 284t

correlations between political orientation and implicit and explicit attitudes, 485–93

effect of political orientation and procedural justice on decision acceptance, 363–64, 364t, 365f

effect of political orientation and procedural justice on satisfaction with authority, 359, 361–62, 362t, 363f, 364–66

effects of political expertise, 271–72, 276–80, 277t, 280t

ideological differences between liberals and conservatives,

overview, 395t, 481–83 ideological self-placement and self-

reported warmth ratings for lowand high-status groups, 491–93, 491 nn. 4–5, 492f

implicit and explicit preferences for George Bush vs. John Kerry using ideological self-placement, 483–84, 484f

implicit and explicit preferences for higher or lower status groups using ideological self-placement, 486–88, 487f, 488 n. 1

intergroup attitudes and the changing of political minds, 500–502

limited diffusion of ideology to mass public, 271

mean warmth rating and ideology– attitude relation for 14 social groups, 493–96, 494t–495t

regression estimates for warmth ratings for attitudes toward Blacks by political ideology for ANES data, 498–500, 499f

relationship between ideological selfplacement and attitudes toward Blacks for ANES data, 497–98, 498f

role of elite political discourse, 270–72

single-item political ideology assessment, 483–84, 484f

UCLA Student Survey, 273–74, 275–80, 277t, 278f, 278 n. 2

See also Dual process model of ideological attitudes; Political conservatism; Political liberalism; Regional differences in political orientation

Ideology, general definitions, 4, 55, 210–11

present contributions, 7–8, 11–12 resurgence in interest, 6

See also Automaticity of ideology; Bottom-up approaches to ideology; Top-down approaches to ideology

Implicit Association Test (IAT), 18, 482, 483–85, 486, 488

Implicit cultural cognition ambivalence in contemporary

Americans, 45–46

dissociation of implicit and intentional attitudes, 57, 71

evidence for implicit American nationalist ideology, 59–60, 71–72

implicit biases and stereotypes, 30, 42, 47

link between work and divine salvation, 41–42

link between work morality and sexual morality, 42–45

overview, 28–30

social cognitive approach, 56–57, 70, 482–83

Implicit processes

automatic associations and implicit biases and stereotypes, 30, 42, 47

correlations between political orientation and implicit and explicit attitudes, 485–93

dissociation of implicit and intentional attitudes, 57, 71

evidence for implicit American nationalist ideology, 59–60, 71–72

implicit and explicit preferences for higher or lower status groups using ideological self-placement, 486–88, 487f, 488 n. 1

Implicit Association Test (IAT), 18, 482, 483–85, 486, 488

implicit biases and stereotypes in cultural cognition, 30, 42, 47 implicit–explicit consistencies or discrepancies of intergroup attitudes, 487, 501, 502, 503

implicit Puritanism, 14, 28, 40–45, 47 implicit racial stereotyping, 30,

36, 42

measuring implicit attitudes, 484–85

overview, 7

political orientation and implicit preferences for high-status groups, 482–83

See also Automaticity of ideology Implicit Puritanism, 14, 28, 40–45, 47 Individualistic fallacy, 326 Industrial Revolution, 31, 373

Injustices. See Responses to historical injustices

Innate, definition, 382 Inputs, definition, 428 Intergroup attitudes

attitude toward gays and lesbians, 484–85, 486, 503

changing of political minds, 500–502 correlations between political

orientation and implicit and explicit attitudes, 485–93

ideological self-placement and selfreported warmth ratings for lowand high-status groups, 491–93, 491 nn. 4–5, 492f

implicit and explicit preferences for George Bush vs. John Kerry using ideological self-placement, 483–84, 484f

implicit and explicit preferences for higher or lower status groups using ideological self-placement, 486–88, 487f, 488 n. 1

implicit–explicit consistency or discrepancy, 487, 501, 502, 503

implicit racial stereotyping, 30, 36, 42 liberals as social change agents,

496–97, 504

mean warmth rating and ideology– attitude relation for 14 social groups, 493–96, 494t–495t

measuring implicit attitudes, 484–85 overview, 480–81

political orientation and implicit preferences for high-status groups, 482–83

regression estimates for warmth ratings for attitudes toward Blacks by political ideology for ANES data, 498–500, 499f

relationship between ideological self-placement and attitudes toward Blacks for ANES data, 497–98, 498f

self-reported warmth toward African Americans and White Americans, by respondent race, 488–91,

489f, 490 nn. 2–3 single-item political ideology

assessment, 484f

social identity theory, 488, 490–91 Internet as research methodology, 16, 191, 325–26, 328–29, 485–93

Irish traditionalism, 38 n. 2

Justice. See Belief in a just world (BJW); Corrective justice; Distributive justice; Perceived fairness; Procedural justice; Theories

of justice

Justification of the status quo attributions that legitimize situations,

109–10

compensatory attributes, 119 effect of conservative political

ideology, 118

effect of perceived equality, 119 effect of religious doctrine, 119 effect of tradition, 118

evaluations of people in positive or negative situations, 110–11

greater perception of fairness, 111–12, 117, 118, 120

influence of authority, 118–19 mediators and system-justifying

beliefs, 118–20

moderating effect of ambiguity on perception of discrimination, 113–17, 115f, 120

moderators and system-justifying beliefs, 116–18

overview, 107–8

perception of deservedness, 110–12, 169

procedural justice and motivation to justify the status quo, 357–58, 366–68

See also Psychological advantage for the status quo; System-justification motive; System-justification theory (SJT)

Just world. See Belief in a just world (BJW)

Lay epistemics, 268–69 Legitimacy

decision acceptance and authority, 118–19, 359

definition, 351

distributive justice as source of legitimizing information, 352

effect of political orientation and procedural justice on decision acceptance, 363–64, 364t, 365f

effect of political orientation and procedural justice on satisfaction with authority, 359, 361–62, 362t, 363f, 364–66

material issues as source of legitimizing information, 352

motivational influences on legitimacy judgments, 353–55

perceived legitimacy, overview, 351–52

procedural justice as source of legitimizing information, 352–53, 367–68

satisfaction with authority, general, 359

See also Perceived fairness; Procedural justice

Liberal political ideology. See Political liberalism

Libertarians, 128, 145, 148, 384, 411 n. 2 Loss aversion and the status quo, 94,

135 n. 4

Materialism in American culture, 65–67

Mere existence effect, 95

Mere exposure effect, 92, 97, 98 Meritocracies

American moral exceptionalism, 33, 35–37

definition, 130

in hypothetical-society studies, 130, 133–37, 139, 143–44

meritocratic beliefs, 435, 439 Moral absolutism, 29, 38–40

Moral decline. See Perceptions of moral decline

Moral domain, definition, 373, 380 Moral exceptionalism. See American

moral exceptionalism Moral foundations theory (MFT)

authority/respect foundation, 381–82, 382 n. 7

beliefs and moral values of conservatives, 384–85, 393–96, 395t

beliefs and moral values of liberals, 384–85, 395t

cultural/historical account, 381, 383, 383 n. 8

developmental account, 381, 382–83 ethic of autonomy, 380

ethic of community, 380 ethic of divinity, 380 ethics of care, 381, 381 n. 6

fairness/reciprocity foundation, 381, 384

harm/care foundation, 381, 384 ingroup/loyalty foundation, 381 justice as foundation, 379–80 kin altruism, 380, 381

modern or individualizing foundations, 384

moral development, 379, 382–83 moral domain, definition, 373, 380 Moral Foundations Questionnaire

(MFQ), 385–87, 386f, 389

morality as a mechanism of meaning, 391–92

moral stereotype inaccuracy across the political spectrum, 387–90

nativist claim, 380–82

and origins of system-justifying motive, 392–93

overview and background, 17, 379–84, 396–97

purity/sanctity foundation, 382 reciprocal altruism, 380, 381 system justification in morality,

overview, 390–91

traditional or binding foundations, 384

Motivated reasoning

afterlife belief and fear of death, 243–44, 244f, 248–49, 258–60

afterlife belief and religious beliefs, 244–45, 244f

definition, 243–44

Motivational theories of public policy reasoning

subterranean-motive theories, 15, 126–28, 142, 151–52

transparent-motive theories, 127, 139, 142, 151–52

See also System-justification theory (SJT)

Naïve realism, 387, 407, 417 Nationalist ideologies

activation by environmental stimuli and symbols, 56–57, 76

characteristics, 57–59, 70–71 generality of American research to

other nations, 74–75 Israel, 75–76

See also American nationalist ideology

National news media. See News exposure

Nazism, 39, 141 n. 8, 227, 416 Nebraska Men’s Association Opposed

to Woman Suffrage, 444–45 Neuroticism

Big Five personality dimensions, 321, 323

political orientation and regional differences, 322, 323, 331, 334, 336

News exposure

impact on accessibility of the concept of power, 61–62, 64

impact on desire for powerful roles, 63–64

impact on materialistic views, 65–67 and implicit American nationalist

ideology, 59, 74

linkage with aggression, 68–70 overview, 60–61

OCEAN. See Big Five personality dimensions

Openness

Big Five personality dimensions, 321–22, 324

political orientation and regional differences, 323–24, 329–30, 333, 336, 338–39

Outcomes, definition, 428 Overshadowing, 90

Paradoxical contentment displayed by working women, 429–30

Perceived fairness

and belief in a just world, 111–12, 117, 118, 120, 433

cognitive–experiential processes, 196–98

and cultural worldviews, 189, 190 motivated distortion of procedural fairness information, 355–56,

357–58, 366–68

motivated processing of procedural fairness information, 355–56

motivational influences, 354–55, 366–68

and uncertainty management, 190, 198–201, 354

See also Legitimacy; Procedural justice

Perceptions of moral decline association with political

conservatism, 404, 405 n. 1, 411–15

biases that produce illusion of decline, 403–4, 406–11, 416–17, 418

crime rate, perception, 405, 408–9, 418

culture war thesis, 405 effect of aging, 404, 410–11

effect of increased responsibility, 408–10

effect of psychological biases, 403–4 effect of reflection on self-change,

407, 410, 417–18

effect of transition to parenthood, 408–9

eugenics movements, 415–16 fundamentalist Protestant

perceptions of social decline, 413

list of top problems in U.S. schools, 1940 and 1980, 402–4

mistaking self-changes for change in the world, 403–4, 406–11, 416–17, 418

naïve realism, 407, 417

neglected children, perception, 405 overview, 402–6, 405 n. 1, 418–19 polarization of American values, 405 prevalence of autism, 406

reasons for linkage with conservatism, 415–17

right-wing authoritarianism, 412, 413–14, 415

selfishness, perception, 404–5 teenage pregnancy rates,

perception, 405

widespread perceptions of social decline, 404–6

Personal entitlement. See Entitlement

Personality and political orientation, 319–21, 319f