- •1. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics
- •2. Branches of Phonetics
- •3. The classification of English consonant sounds
- •4. The classification of English vowel sounds
- •5. The phoneme
- •6. Methods of phonetic analysis
- •7. Main phonological schools.
- •8. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •9. The system of consonant phonemes. Problem of affricates.
- •10. The system of vowel phonemes. Problems of diphthongs and vowel length.
- •11. The unstressed vocalism of the English language.
- •12. The notion of alternation and its types
- •13. Contextual alternations in English.
- •14. Modifications of sounds in English. Modification of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation.
- •15. Modification of English sounds in connected speech. Elision. Accommodation. Vowel reduction.
- •16. Syllable. Functional characteristics of the syllable
- •17.Theory on syllable division and formation.
- •18. He structure and functions of syllables in English.
- •19. Nature of word stress. Place of word stress in English. Degrees of stress.
- •20. Functions and tendencies of the Englishstress
- •21. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress.
- •22. Typology of accentual structures.
- •23. Intonation and prosody: definition, approaches, functions, spheres of application.
- •24. Components of intonation and the structure of English tone-group.
- •25. Temporal and timber components of intonation.
- •27. Spoken and written language.
- •28. The communicative function of intonation.
- •29. Extralinguistic situation and its components.
- •30. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level.
- •31. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds.
- •Informational
- •32. Othography and its principles.
- •33. National language, national variants, dialects.
- •34. American English as a national variety of the English language.
- •35. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms.
- •36. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types.
- •37. The main changes in Received Pronunciation.
- •38. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England.
- •39. Classification of pronunciation variants in English. British and American pronunciation models.
- •40. Phonostylistics. Types and styles of pronunciation in English. Intonational styles.
- •41. Standard English pronunciation. Tendencies of Modern English pronunciation
- •42. Social and territorial differentiation of English pronunciation.
- •43. Style-modifying factors
21. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress.
Sentence stress is the governing stress in connected speech. All words have their individual stress in isolation. When words are connected into sense groups (also called thought groups, i.e., logically connected groups of words), and sense groups are connected into sentences, content words keep their stress, and function words lose their stress. The most important words in the sentence receive stronger stress. The last stressed word in the sentence receives the strongest stress with the help of a fall or a rise. entence stress is not just a phonetic peculiarity of English. Sentence stress has a very important function of marking the words that are necessary for understanding an utterance. When native speakers of English listen to their conversation partners, they listen for stressed words, because stressed words provide important information. It is often difficult to understand the meaning of the sentence in which even one content word is missing. It is also difficult to understand the sentence in which an important word is not stressed or a function word is stressed.Word stress (WS) can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is usually a vowel.
S-s is variable – any syl-le of a polys-c word can carry the main stress. Signals: pitch of voice (level), sonority of sound (vowel quality: strong, weak; stressed syl-s have strong v-s – pot, Tom, office, odd, man, uns-ed – weak: potato, official, addition, woman), duration in time (length – syl-s are extra long when they are prominant) – together they make syl-s sound louder. Degrees of s-s: primary, secondary (partial), weak. S-s is the comb-n of factors.
S-s may be semantically contrasted (verb – noun: contrast, present). Modify of s-s: photogragh-photographer-photographic).
Rules:1) ‘front weight’ in nouns & adj-s (have s-s on the 1-st syl-le); 2) 2 & 3-syl-le words have a prefix (not stressed), majority are verbs; 3) w-s with suf-s (unstr-ed); 4) certain suf-s cause the syl-le to be st-ed: -ive, -ient, -iant, -ial, -ion, -ic, -ous, -ish, -ify, -ible; 5) –able – doesn’t change the stress; 6) in polys-c w-ds certain suf-s cause the s-s to be placed on the 4-th syl-le fr. the end - -ary, -ator, alimony, literacy, inventory; 7) in compound w-ds – singlestressed – reading-room, music-hall; but adj-es & verbs – 2-stressed – well-bred, give in.
22. Typology of accentual structures.
The numerous variations of English word stress are systematized in the typology of accentual structure of English words worked out by G.P. Torsuyev. He classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the main and the secondary stress). The distribution of stressed syllables within the word accentual types forms accentual structures of words. Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected with the morphological type of words, with the number of syllables, the semantic value of the root and the prefix of the word.
The accentual types are:
1. ['___]. This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this type may include two and more syllables, e.g. 'fafher, 'possibly, 'mother-in-law, 'gas-pipe.
2. [ '_ '_ ]. The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with separable prefixes, e.g. 'radio-'active, 're'write, 'diso'bey.
3. [ '_' _ '_ ] and 4. ['_' _ '_ '_]. The accentual types are met in initial compound abbreviations like 'U'S'A, 'U'S'S'R.
5. ['_ ,___]. The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very
common among compound words, e.g. 'hair-,dresser, 'substructure.
6. [, _'___]. The accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as well. In simple words the stresses fall onto:
1. the prefix and the root: maga'zine;
2. the root and the suffix: ,hospi'tality;
3. the prefix and the suffix: disorganization.
The other five types are rare and found in small number of words.
The data given above suggest an idea of the great variability in the accentual structure of English words. The most widely spread among the enumerated accentual types are supposed to be Type 1, Type 2, Type 5 and Type 6. Each type includes varieties of definite accentual structures with different numbers of syllables and marks thousands of words. So the four of them cover the main bulk of most common English words and are therefore most typical for the English vocabulary.
The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An 'unpolished 'stone but: The 'stone was un'polished.
The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.