- •1. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics
- •2. Branches of Phonetics
- •3. The classification of English consonant sounds
- •4. The classification of English vowel sounds
- •5. The phoneme
- •6. Methods of phonetic analysis
- •7. Main phonological schools.
- •8. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •9. The system of consonant phonemes. Problem of affricates.
- •10. The system of vowel phonemes. Problems of diphthongs and vowel length.
- •11. The unstressed vocalism of the English language.
- •12. The notion of alternation and its types
- •13. Contextual alternations in English.
- •14. Modifications of sounds in English. Modification of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation.
- •15. Modification of English sounds in connected speech. Elision. Accommodation. Vowel reduction.
- •16. Syllable. Functional characteristics of the syllable
- •17.Theory on syllable division and formation.
- •18. He structure and functions of syllables in English.
- •19. Nature of word stress. Place of word stress in English. Degrees of stress.
- •20. Functions and tendencies of the Englishstress
- •21. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress.
- •22. Typology of accentual structures.
- •23. Intonation and prosody: definition, approaches, functions, spheres of application.
- •24. Components of intonation and the structure of English tone-group.
- •25. Temporal and timber components of intonation.
- •27. Spoken and written language.
- •28. The communicative function of intonation.
- •29. Extralinguistic situation and its components.
- •30. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level.
- •31. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds.
- •Informational
- •32. Othography and its principles.
- •33. National language, national variants, dialects.
- •34. American English as a national variety of the English language.
- •35. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms.
- •36. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types.
- •37. The main changes in Received Pronunciation.
- •38. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England.
- •39. Classification of pronunciation variants in English. British and American pronunciation models.
- •40. Phonostylistics. Types and styles of pronunciation in English. Intonational styles.
- •41. Standard English pronunciation. Tendencies of Modern English pronunciation
- •42. Social and territorial differentiation of English pronunciation.
- •43. Style-modifying factors
27. Spoken and written language.
Written and spoken language differ in many ways. However some forms of writing are closer to speech than others, and vice versa. Below are some of the ways in which these two forms of language differ:
Writing is usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been printed/written out.
Speech is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterances as they go along.
A written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language and writing system is still understood.
Speech is usually used for immediate interactions.
Written language tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate clauses. The punctuation and layout of written texts also have no spoken equivalent. However some forms of written language, such as instant messages and email, are closer to spoken language.
Spoken language tends to be full of repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and interruptions, with the exception of formal speeches and other scripted forms of speech, such as news reports and scripts for plays and films.
Writers receive no immediate feedback from their readers, except in computer-based communication. Therefore they cannot rely on context to clarify things so there is more need to explain things clearly and unambiguously than in speech, except in written correspondence between people who know one another well.
Speech is usually a dynamic interaction between two or more people. Context and shared knowledge play a major role, so it is possible to leave much unsaid or indirectly implied.
Writers can make use of punctuation, headings, layout, colours and other graphical effects in their written texts. Such things are not available in speech
Speech can use timing, tone, volume, and timbre to add emotional context.
Written material can be read repeatedly and closely analysed, and notes can be made on the writing surface. Only recorded speech can be used in this way.
Some grammatical constructions are only used in writing, as are some kinds of vocabulary, such as some complex chemical and legal terms.
Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly in speech. These include slang expressions, and tags like y'know, like, etc.
28. The communicative function of intonation.
Communicative function: What the speaker wants to do with the utterance, how s/he wants the hearer to respond
There is a typical, but not necessary relationship between sentence type and communicative function:
Declarative Statement (Ex 3a)
Imperative Command (Ex 3f)
Exclamatory exclamation
Wh-interrogative Wh-question (Ex 3i)
Yes-no interrogative Yes-no question (Ex 3l)
Communicative functions are worked out on the basis of sentence type, intonation and context.
Many communicative functions do not have a typical realization, e.g. offer, invitation, suggestion, request.