Text 20: a brief history of statistics

Statistics has a long and venerable history. Perhaps the earliest use of statistics was when an ancient chief counted the number of effective warriors that he had or the number he would need to defeat his enemy, or when he figured how much might judiciously be collected in taxes. In later times, statistics were used to report death rates in the great London plague and in the study of natural resources. These uses of statistics, which encompass a broad field of activity referred to as "state arithmetic", are purely descriptive in nature.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries mathematicians were asked by gamblers to develop principles that would improve the chances of winning at cards and dice. The two most noted mathematicians who became involved in this, the first major study of probability, were Bernoulli and de Moivre. In the 1730s de Moivre developed the equation for the normal curve. Important work on probability was conducted in the first two decades of the nineteenth century by two other mathematicians, Laplace and Gauss. Their work was an application of probability principles to astronomy.

Through the eighteenth century statistics was mathematical, political, and governmental. In the early nineteenth century, a famous Belgian statistician, Quetelet, applied statistics to investigations of social and educational problems. Walker (1929) credits Quetelet with developing statistical theory as a general method of research applicable to any observational science. Beyond any doubt, the individual who had the greatest effect upon the introduction and use of statistics in the social sciences was Francis Galton. In the course of his long life he made notable contributions m the fields of heredity psychology, anthropology, and statistics. Our present understanding of correlation, the measure of agreement between two variables, is credited to him. The mathematician Person collaborated with Galton in later years and was instrumental in developing many of the correlation and regression formulas that are in use today. Among Gallon's contributions was the development of centiles or percentiles.

The famous American psychologist Janus Me Keen Cattell studied in Europe in the 1880s and contacted Galton and other European stalisticians. On his return to the United States he and his students, including Thomdike, began to apply statistical methods to psychological and educational problems. The influence of these men was great; in a few years theoretical and applied statislics courses were commonly taught m American universities.

In the twentieth century new techniques and methods' were applied to the study of small samples. The major contributions in small-sample theory were made by the late Fisher, an English statistician.

Text 21: types of businesses in the u.K.

Most businesses in the United Kingdom operate in one of the following ways:

• sole trader

• partnership

• limited liability company

• branch of a foreign company.

The sole trader is the oldest form of business. There are many one-man owners, for example: a farmer, doctor, Solicitor, estate agent, garage man, jobber, builder, hairdresser etc. The partnership is a firm where there are a few partners. They are firms of solicitors, architects, auditors, management consultants etc. The names of all the partners of the firm are printed on the stationery of a partnership.

The most common type of company in the United Kingdom is the limited liability company. At the end of the name of such a company the word Ltd. is used. For example: Wilson and Son Ltd.

Many of such companies are joint-stock companies owned by shareholders.

Limited liability companies are divided into public and private ones. Only public companies may offer shares to the public at the stock exchange. The names of such companies end in p.l.c. which stands for public limited company. For instance: John and Michael p.l.c.

Private limited companies may not offer shares to the public. The names of such companies end simply in Ltd.

A branch of foreign company is a part of a company incorporated outside Great Britain but acting under the law of the U.K. Usually these companies act in the U.K. under their normal foreign names.