- •Introduction into biochemistry
- •General properties
- •Classification of proteins
- •Simple Proteins – representatives, properties and role
- •Globulins [g]
- •Histones (h) h are basic non value proteins. Localized in nucleus with mol. Mass (mm) 10000-20000 d. They contain of 30% diaminomonocarboxylic acids and have positive charge. Their iep is equal 10.
- •Table 1 “The properties of globular simple proteins”
- •Conjugated proteins
- •Table 2 Composition of the free (transport) lipoproteins in plasma of human
- •True gp Proteoglycans
- •Table 3 Chemical nature of glycosaminoglycans
- •Nucleoproteins (np)
- •Mononucleotides
- •Table 4 The composition and names of nucleosides, nucleotides and their phosphoric derivatives
- •Structure of dna Primary st. Of dna is a spirally one polynucleotides chain (pnc), the disposition of nucleotides in which determine all hereditary properties of organism.
- •Structure of rna
- •Enzymes
- •Mechanism of enzyme action
- •Factors influencing on enzyme activity
- •Enzyme inhibition
- •Classification of enzymes
- •III. Hydrolases
- •Bioenergetics
- •Table 6 Redox potential (rp)
- •Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation.
- •The types of oxidation
- •Peroxidase’s type
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamin b12
- •Ascorbic acid (vitamin c)
- •Rutin, vitamin p (permeability) – bioflavonoids, capillaris’s strengthening
- •Fat soluble vitamins
- •Deficiency diseases
- •Vitamin k
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Intermediate and final stages of carbohydrates metabolism
- •Lipids of food, their importance, digestion, absorption. Micelles and chylomicrons. The role of intestinal wall, liver, lungs and adipose tissue in lipid metabolism
- •Lipids metabolism. Lipoproteins, their composition and role. The pathways of usage of glycerol and free fatty acids in cells
- •“Pathologic chemistry of lipid’s metabolism”
- •The intermediate Metabolism of Simple Proteins (part 1): the conversion of amino acids in tissues. The formation and usage of Creatine. The decarboxylation of amino acids, the role of biogenic amines
- •Simple proteins metabolism. The pathways of formation and detoxification of ammonia
- •Conjugated proteins metabolism
- •Biochemistry of liver
- •Classification of hormones
- •General properties of hormones
- •Hormones of epiphysis Melatonin
- •Hypothalamic hormones
- •Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
- •Oxytocin
- •Hormones of hypophysis
- •Hormones of pancreas
- •Hormones of adrenal glands
- •Sexual hormones are formed in gonads.
- •Estrogens
- •If the pregnancy beginns so development of embryo occurs; if the pregnancy doesn’t occur so degeneration of yellow body proceeds and mensis beginns again Androgens
- •Biochemistry of blood plasma
- •Table 10 a main biochemical indices in the blood plasma (serum)
- •Functions and diagnostic importance of some fractions of proteins Table 11 Biologic and clinic importance of blood serum proteins
- •Blood clotting system
- •Blood dissolution system
- •Complement system
- •Inorganic constituents of blood plasma. Water-mineral metabolism. Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Acidosis and alkalosis Table 12 Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Water metabolism
- •Biochemistry of erythrocytes
- •Metabolism in erythrocytes
- •The physiological and pathological derivatives of hemoglobin and their spectra of taking up
- •Biochemistry of white blood cells
- •Biochemistry of kidneys
- •Normal and pathologic constituents of urine. Urine analysis – its clinical significance Composition of normal urine
- •Physical examination
- •I. Volume
- •The term polyuria implies an increased volume of urine
- •II. Colour
- •III. Specific Gravity
- •Clinical significance
- •IV. Acidity and pH
- •Clinical Significance
- •V. Odor
- •Causes of abnormal odor
- •VI. Turbidity
- •Types of turbidities
- •Inorganic constituents
- •Chlorides
- •Clinical significance
- •Organic constituents
- •Clinical significance
- •II. Ammonia
- •Clinical significance
- •Increase
- •Uric acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Clinical aspect
- •Creatinine and creatine
- •Oxalic Acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Aminoacids
- •Aminoacidurias
- •Proteins
- •Proteinuria
- •Abnormal constituents
Hormones of pancreas
The chemical structure, physiologic effect, regulation of secretion of somatostatin and pancreatic peptide
Somatostatin is formed in D-cells of pancreas. It can be also formed in hypothalamus, gaster, large intestine, thyroid gland, salivary glands. It is peptide consisting of 14 amino acids. It inhibits the formation of c.AMP, supresses the secretion of insulin and glucagon, Growth hormone, somatotropin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, pancreatic enzymes and secretin. Somatostatin deminishes aggregation of thrombocytes, absorption of glucose and amino acids. It inhibits function of gaster and peristalsis of intestine. Hyperglycemia, hyperaminoacidemia, secretin and cholecystokinin stimulate secretion of somatostatin
Pancreatic peptide consists of 36 amino acids.. it supresses contraction of gall bladder and secretion of pancreatic enzymes. The secretion of pancreatic peptide depends on content of proteins in food and level of glucose in blood plasma
The chemical structure, target-cells, mechanism of action, physiologic effects, regulation of secretion of insulin
Insulin is formed in B-cells of pancreas.
The chemical structure: It is unfull value protein consistsing of 51 amino acids (except of Met and Try). Amino acids of insulin are arranged to 2 polypeptide chains (A and B). A-chain consists of 21 amino acids; B-chain does 30 amino acids. These chains are linked by 2 disulfidic bonds. Third disuldidic bond occurs in A-chain. Monomers of Insulin are combined with zinc forming polymer consisting of 2-8 molecules of insulin. Insulin is broken up in liver under action of insulinase.
Mechainism of action: 3-rd one
Receptor of insulin consists of 4 subunits (2 alfa and 2 beta). Subunits are bound by disulfidic bridges. B-chain of insulin joins with alfa-subunits of receptor. Beta-subunits of receptor are catalytic part of receptor (tyrosine-kinase).
Target-cells: all cells of the body except nervous system, lens, erythrocytes. Coupled insulin has receptors in adipose tissue only.
Physiologic action: insulin is anabolic hormone that is stimulates synthesis of glycogen, proteins and lipids. The cleavage of proteins, lipids and glycogen is decreased.
The influence on Carbohydrate Metabolism: 1) increase the permeability of membranes for glucose; 2) increase glycogenogenesis; 3) increase of glycolysis; 4) decrease glycogenolysis
The influence on lipid metabolism: 1) increase of synthesis of lipids (incl FFA, Cholseterol); 2) increase of liponeogenesis from glucose and its intermediaries; 3) increase oxidation of glycerol; 4) decrease beta-oxidation of FFA, ketogenesis
The influence on protein metabolism: 1) increase protein synthesis; 2) decrease protein cleavage
Stimulation of cells division
Regulation of secretion: low level of glucose in blood plasma decreases insulin formation. high level of glucose increases insulin formation
The chemical structure, target-cells, mechanism of action, physiologic effects, regulation of secretion of glucagon
The chemical structure: It is peptide consisting of 29 amino acids. It is formed in A-cells of pancreas. It is also formed in some cells of intestinal mucosa.
Target-cells: are cells of liver, muscles, adipose tissue, myocardium, B-cells of pancreas
Mechanism of action: 1-st through c.AMP
Physiologic effects:
This hormone increases the level of glucose in blood plasma due to gluconeogenesis from lipids (from glycerol). The glycogenolysis and lipolysis are increased too. But effect on glycogenolysis lasts during short time. Therefore gluconeogenesis is a main reason of increase of glucose in blood plasma.
Regulation of secretion high level of glucose decreases glucagon secretion. Low level of glucose in blood plasma increases one.
Biochemical bases of hyper- and hypofunction of pancreas
Hyperfunction of pancreas with regard to insulin is observed in non-malignant tumor of B-cells of pancreas and overdose of insulin. It results in hypoglycemia which expressed by weakness, increased sweating, decreased vision. Emergancy is injection of glucose.
Diabetes mellitus is a lack of insulin or its receptors. There are insulindependent (IDDM) and insulinindependent (IIDM) diabetes mellitus. Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is based on the level of glucose in blood, glucosuria, ketonemia and ketonuria. If the level of glucose on empty stomach is more than 7.8mM/l so it is diebetes mellitus. If the level of glucose in occasional sample of blood plasma is more than 11.1mM/L so it is also diabetes mellitus.
IDDM is associated with deficiency of insulin. IIDM is associated with lack of receptors or excess of contrinsular hormones.
There are diabetes related with absence of free insulin and presence of coupled one (it is due to the action of coupled insulin on adipose tissue where lipogenesis is increased). Such patients are fatty. But another type of diabetes is associated with absence both of forms of insulin. Such patients are skinny (thin).
There are 3 main symptoms of diabetes mellitus: polyuria, polyphagia and polydypsia. Biochemical analysis show hyperglycemia, glucosuris, ketonemia and ketonuria.
Hyperglycemia is associated with deficiency of insulin and excess of contrinsular hormones because glucose doesn’t enter the cells and isn’t used in them. It results in polyphagia (hunger). High level of glucose causes dehydration of tissues because water exits from cells and enters the vessels to dissolve the blood. If the level of glucose is more than renal threshold of its the glucose passes through kidneys in urine and glucosuria is developed. Glucose draws water therefore polyuria is observed. Polyuria causes polydypsia (thirsty).
High level of glucose in blood plasma causes formation of glycosylated hemoglobin. Such hemoglobin doesn’t carry out its function and hypoxia occurs. It results lactate acidosis.
Excess of contrinsular hormones leads to increased lipolysis and subequent ketogenesis. Ketonemia and ketonuria are developed.
In insulinindependent tissues fructose-sorbitol pathway is activated. It results in lesion of these tissues (micro- and macroangiopathies, cataracts, retinopathy, nephropathy, trophic ulcerus)