- •Introduction into biochemistry
- •General properties
- •Classification of proteins
- •Simple Proteins – representatives, properties and role
- •Globulins [g]
- •Histones (h) h are basic non value proteins. Localized in nucleus with mol. Mass (mm) 10000-20000 d. They contain of 30% diaminomonocarboxylic acids and have positive charge. Their iep is equal 10.
- •Table 1 “The properties of globular simple proteins”
- •Conjugated proteins
- •Table 2 Composition of the free (transport) lipoproteins in plasma of human
- •True gp Proteoglycans
- •Table 3 Chemical nature of glycosaminoglycans
- •Nucleoproteins (np)
- •Mononucleotides
- •Table 4 The composition and names of nucleosides, nucleotides and their phosphoric derivatives
- •Structure of dna Primary st. Of dna is a spirally one polynucleotides chain (pnc), the disposition of nucleotides in which determine all hereditary properties of organism.
- •Structure of rna
- •Enzymes
- •Mechanism of enzyme action
- •Factors influencing on enzyme activity
- •Enzyme inhibition
- •Classification of enzymes
- •III. Hydrolases
- •Bioenergetics
- •Table 6 Redox potential (rp)
- •Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation.
- •The types of oxidation
- •Peroxidase’s type
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamin b12
- •Ascorbic acid (vitamin c)
- •Rutin, vitamin p (permeability) – bioflavonoids, capillaris’s strengthening
- •Fat soluble vitamins
- •Deficiency diseases
- •Vitamin k
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Intermediate and final stages of carbohydrates metabolism
- •Lipids of food, their importance, digestion, absorption. Micelles and chylomicrons. The role of intestinal wall, liver, lungs and adipose tissue in lipid metabolism
- •Lipids metabolism. Lipoproteins, their composition and role. The pathways of usage of glycerol and free fatty acids in cells
- •“Pathologic chemistry of lipid’s metabolism”
- •The intermediate Metabolism of Simple Proteins (part 1): the conversion of amino acids in tissues. The formation and usage of Creatine. The decarboxylation of amino acids, the role of biogenic amines
- •Simple proteins metabolism. The pathways of formation and detoxification of ammonia
- •Conjugated proteins metabolism
- •Biochemistry of liver
- •Classification of hormones
- •General properties of hormones
- •Hormones of epiphysis Melatonin
- •Hypothalamic hormones
- •Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
- •Oxytocin
- •Hormones of hypophysis
- •Hormones of pancreas
- •Hormones of adrenal glands
- •Sexual hormones are formed in gonads.
- •Estrogens
- •If the pregnancy beginns so development of embryo occurs; if the pregnancy doesn’t occur so degeneration of yellow body proceeds and mensis beginns again Androgens
- •Biochemistry of blood plasma
- •Table 10 a main biochemical indices in the blood plasma (serum)
- •Functions and diagnostic importance of some fractions of proteins Table 11 Biologic and clinic importance of blood serum proteins
- •Blood clotting system
- •Blood dissolution system
- •Complement system
- •Inorganic constituents of blood plasma. Water-mineral metabolism. Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Acidosis and alkalosis Table 12 Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Water metabolism
- •Biochemistry of erythrocytes
- •Metabolism in erythrocytes
- •The physiological and pathological derivatives of hemoglobin and their spectra of taking up
- •Biochemistry of white blood cells
- •Biochemistry of kidneys
- •Normal and pathologic constituents of urine. Urine analysis – its clinical significance Composition of normal urine
- •Physical examination
- •I. Volume
- •The term polyuria implies an increased volume of urine
- •II. Colour
- •III. Specific Gravity
- •Clinical significance
- •IV. Acidity and pH
- •Clinical Significance
- •V. Odor
- •Causes of abnormal odor
- •VI. Turbidity
- •Types of turbidities
- •Inorganic constituents
- •Chlorides
- •Clinical significance
- •Organic constituents
- •Clinical significance
- •II. Ammonia
- •Clinical significance
- •Increase
- •Uric acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Clinical aspect
- •Creatinine and creatine
- •Oxalic Acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Aminoacids
- •Aminoacidurias
- •Proteins
- •Proteinuria
- •Abnormal constituents
III. Specific Gravity
Due to presence of various substances in solution, the sp.gr.of urine is higher than that of pure water. The sp.gr.is influenced by:
the volume of water excreted, and
varies inversely with urine output.
Apparatus: specific gravity is measured with an instrument called urinometer. It consists of a weighted cylinder which floats in urine and a stem calibrated in degrees of sp.gr.
The depth to which the urinometer sinks depends on the density of the urine.
The scale usually reads from 1.000 to 1.060.
The instrument is usually calibrated for use at a temperature of 15C.
Note: warm and freshly voided urine should be allowed to cool to room temperature before the specific gravity is measured.
Clinical significance
1. normal value: the normal range of sp.gr. from 1.008 to 1.030, but usually it is within the limits of 1.015 to 1.025.
Note: the sp.gr. varies inversely with the volume of urine excreted thus, in D.insipidus the sp.gr. is very low, approaching 1.001, where large volume is excreted, whereas, in febrile conditions, a smaller volume is excreted, the urine is concentrated and has a high sp.gr.
An exception to the inverse ratio is D.mellitus; in this condition the volume is usually large and the sp.gr. is high because of the glucose present.
2. high sp.gr.: provided renal function is normal, urine of high sp.gr. is excreted when
fluid intake is restricted,
extrarenal fluid loss exceeds the intake,
presence of glucose in urine increases sp.gr., e.g.D.mellitus,
presence of albumin (albuminuria) also increases sp.gr.
3. low sp.gr: urine of low sp.gr. is excreted when there is:
polyuria with the exception of D.M. (see above),
the continued excretion of urine with low sp.gr. of 1.002 to 1.003 is characteristic of diabetes insipidus.
4. fixation of sp.gr.: normally, urine excreted at night has a higher sp.gr. than that secreted during the day. A considerable diurnal variation also seen throughout the day.
A constancy or “fixation” of the sp.gr. over any appreciable length of time is considered a sign of abnormal renal function.
In the later stages of chronic glomerulonephritis tubular function is so impaired that the kidneys are unable to concentrate or dilute urine which has a constant sp.gr. between 1.008 to 1.012 (average 1.010).
Estimation of total solids by sp.gr. Normal value: an adult excretes approximately 30 to 70 gms (average 60gms) of urinary solids in 24 hours.
Out of this –
35 gms is organic substances. Chief organic compounds: urea = 25 to 35gms per 24hrs.; uric acid = 0.5 to 1.0gm per 24hrs.; creatinine = 1.2 to 1.7gm per 24hrs.
25gms constitute inorganic compounds
IV. Acidity and pH
Urinary acidity may be expressed in 2 ways – (a) its H+ ion concentration (“true acidity”) and (b) titratable acidity.
pH of normal urine
Under ordinary conditions, ranges from 5.0 to 7.0, averaging 6.0 in mixed 24hrs urine sample.
Clinical Significance
The acidity of the urine is normally influenced chiefly:
by the nature of the diet, i.e. alkaline or acid ash.
ingestion of large amounts of proteins (meat, bread, fish etc) which yields acids in the course of metabolism (like H2SO4, phosphoric acid, etc) increases urinary acidity and NH3.
Most vegetables and fruits (orange, lemon, apple, peach etc) contain organic acids, e.g. citrates, oxalates, which form HCO3- (bicarbonate) in the body making the urine alkaline and hence decrease urinary acidity.
Certain other fruits like plums, cranberries, contain benzoic acid and quinic acid, which are metabolized to and excreted as hippuric acid, increasing the urinary acidity and NH3
Urinary acidity and NH3 are also increased by starvation and dietary carbohydrate restriction. In these, there is increased catabolism of body proteins and fats with increased urinary excretion of SO4, PO4 and ketone bodies as OH-butyric acid and acetoacetic acid.
2.Urine should not be permitted to decompose during or after the collection of a 24-hour sample. If contamination is there, the microorganisms will start growing and they convert the urea of urine to ammonia carbonate and the urine becomes ammoniacal. To avoid this change, the urine must be kept in refrigerator temperature and a suitable preservative like thymol, toluene or conc.HCL may be added to the container before starting collection of urine.