- •Introduction into biochemistry
- •General properties
- •Classification of proteins
- •Simple Proteins – representatives, properties and role
- •Globulins [g]
- •Histones (h) h are basic non value proteins. Localized in nucleus with mol. Mass (mm) 10000-20000 d. They contain of 30% diaminomonocarboxylic acids and have positive charge. Their iep is equal 10.
- •Table 1 “The properties of globular simple proteins”
- •Conjugated proteins
- •Table 2 Composition of the free (transport) lipoproteins in plasma of human
- •True gp Proteoglycans
- •Table 3 Chemical nature of glycosaminoglycans
- •Nucleoproteins (np)
- •Mononucleotides
- •Table 4 The composition and names of nucleosides, nucleotides and their phosphoric derivatives
- •Structure of dna Primary st. Of dna is a spirally one polynucleotides chain (pnc), the disposition of nucleotides in which determine all hereditary properties of organism.
- •Structure of rna
- •Enzymes
- •Mechanism of enzyme action
- •Factors influencing on enzyme activity
- •Enzyme inhibition
- •Classification of enzymes
- •III. Hydrolases
- •Bioenergetics
- •Table 6 Redox potential (rp)
- •Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation.
- •The types of oxidation
- •Peroxidase’s type
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamin b12
- •Ascorbic acid (vitamin c)
- •Rutin, vitamin p (permeability) – bioflavonoids, capillaris’s strengthening
- •Fat soluble vitamins
- •Deficiency diseases
- •Vitamin k
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Intermediate and final stages of carbohydrates metabolism
- •Lipids of food, their importance, digestion, absorption. Micelles and chylomicrons. The role of intestinal wall, liver, lungs and adipose tissue in lipid metabolism
- •Lipids metabolism. Lipoproteins, their composition and role. The pathways of usage of glycerol and free fatty acids in cells
- •“Pathologic chemistry of lipid’s metabolism”
- •The intermediate Metabolism of Simple Proteins (part 1): the conversion of amino acids in tissues. The formation and usage of Creatine. The decarboxylation of amino acids, the role of biogenic amines
- •Simple proteins metabolism. The pathways of formation and detoxification of ammonia
- •Conjugated proteins metabolism
- •Biochemistry of liver
- •Classification of hormones
- •General properties of hormones
- •Hormones of epiphysis Melatonin
- •Hypothalamic hormones
- •Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
- •Oxytocin
- •Hormones of hypophysis
- •Hormones of pancreas
- •Hormones of adrenal glands
- •Sexual hormones are formed in gonads.
- •Estrogens
- •If the pregnancy beginns so development of embryo occurs; if the pregnancy doesn’t occur so degeneration of yellow body proceeds and mensis beginns again Androgens
- •Biochemistry of blood plasma
- •Table 10 a main biochemical indices in the blood plasma (serum)
- •Functions and diagnostic importance of some fractions of proteins Table 11 Biologic and clinic importance of blood serum proteins
- •Blood clotting system
- •Blood dissolution system
- •Complement system
- •Inorganic constituents of blood plasma. Water-mineral metabolism. Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Acidosis and alkalosis Table 12 Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Water metabolism
- •Biochemistry of erythrocytes
- •Metabolism in erythrocytes
- •The physiological and pathological derivatives of hemoglobin and their spectra of taking up
- •Biochemistry of white blood cells
- •Biochemistry of kidneys
- •Normal and pathologic constituents of urine. Urine analysis – its clinical significance Composition of normal urine
- •Physical examination
- •I. Volume
- •The term polyuria implies an increased volume of urine
- •II. Colour
- •III. Specific Gravity
- •Clinical significance
- •IV. Acidity and pH
- •Clinical Significance
- •V. Odor
- •Causes of abnormal odor
- •VI. Turbidity
- •Types of turbidities
- •Inorganic constituents
- •Chlorides
- •Clinical significance
- •Organic constituents
- •Clinical significance
- •II. Ammonia
- •Clinical significance
- •Increase
- •Uric acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Clinical aspect
- •Creatinine and creatine
- •Oxalic Acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Aminoacids
- •Aminoacidurias
- •Proteins
- •Proteinuria
- •Abnormal constituents
Blood clotting system
There are 12 factors of blood clotting system (see normal physiology). This process may show schematically as conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin under action of thrombin.
Thrombin is formed from prothrombin. Prothrombin is formed from preprothrombin in liver. Preprothrombin is converted to prothrombin under influence of vitamin K. Prothrombin is converted to thrombin under action of calcium
Blood dissolution system
Plasmin is secreted in inactive state as plasminogen. There is an activator of plasminogen in blood plasma. It is in inactive form too. Under action of kallikrein and XII factor inactive activator of plasminogen is converted to active one and subsequently activates plasminogen to plasmin. Plasmin dissolves thrombus.
Thus, inactive activator of plasminogenactive activator of plasminogenplasminogenplasmindissolution of thrombus
Complement system
Plasma contains approximately 20 proteins of complement system. The major proteins are designated C1-9. The details of this system are relatively complex, and a textbook of immunology should be consulted. The basic concept is that the activation of proteins. It results in cell lysis and generation of peptide or polypeptide fragments that are involved in inflammation. The system has other functions, such as clearance of antigen-antibody complexes from the circulation.
Activation of complement system is triggered by 2 routes called the classic and the alternative pathways. First involves interaction of C1 with antigen-antibody complexes, and the second (not involving antibody) involves direct interaction of bacterial cell surfaces with C3q
Nitrogen-less substances of blood plasma include lipids, glucose and products of their metabolism. For example, ketone bodies (0.2-0.6mM/L), total lipids (4-7g/L), total cholesterol (4-7mM/L), TAG (0.5-2.0mM/L), phospholipids (1.5-3.0g/L) and FFA. The normal level of glucose makes up 3.4-6.1mM/L; pyruvic acid 0.07-0.14mM/L; lactic acid (0.4-1.8mM/L).
Hyperglycemia is observed in diabetes mellitus. Hypoglycemia is observed in overdosing of insulin, starvation. Increase of pyruvic and lactic acids is observed in lack of vitamin B1, hypoxia. Increase of cholesterol is observed in atherosclerosis. Increase of ketone bodies is observed in diabetes mellitus and starvation.
Inorganic constituents of blood plasma. Water-mineral metabolism. Acidosis and alkalosis
Inorganic compounds carry out the next functions:
structural (phosphorus, calcium, fluorine)
regulatory (for pH – sodium, chlorine and pottassium; for osmotic pressure – sodium and chlorine)
they act as coenzymes and activators of some hormones(iodine for thyroid gland; iron for hemoglobin, myoglobin, catalase, peroxidase, cytochromes)
specific action (in different biologic processes)
Macroelements are measured by 10-3% and more (in gram): sodium, pottassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, fluorine, chlorine, sulfur.
Microelements are measured by 10-3% and less: iodine, selenium, zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt
Sodium: sources, depot, biologic role, level in blood plasma, concept of hyper- and hyposodiumemia
NaCl is a main source of sodium. Sodium is stored as Sodium chloride in skin.
Biologic role: 1) regulatory (pH, osmotic pressure); 2) nervous-muscular excitability; 3) takes part in absorption of amino acids and glucose; 4) is a component of Na-K-ATP-ase.
Na-K-ATP-ase is enzyme of membranes which catalyzes the cleavage of ATP for transport through membranes. Pottassium may cross the membrane from cells into extracellular matrix passively. Such way is characteristically for sodium but vice versa (from extracellular matrix into cells). This occurs in polarization of membranes. Restoration of charge of membranes after polarization (repolarization) occurs under action of Na-K-ATP-ase which carries out active transport of sodium and pottassium through membranes (sodium from cells into extracellular matrix and pottassium fron extracellular matrix into cells).
The level of sodium in blood plasma makes up 135-145mM/L. Increase of sodium in blood plasma is observed in chronic renal falure and hyperaldosteronism. Decrease of sodium is observed in serum deprivation and hypoaldosteronism.
Potassium: sources, depot, biologic role, level in blood plasma, concept of hyper- and hyposodiumemia
This element mainly occurs in dry-fruits. It is stored in skin and muscles as KCl.
Biologic role: 1) regulatory (pH); 2) takes part in nervous-musculary excitability with sodium; 3) muscular contraction
The normal level is 3.4-5.0mM/L. Increase of pottassium is observed in trauma, after operations, in hemolysis, burns, hypoaldosteronism. This is dangerous due to sudden stop of heart action. Decrease of pottassium in blood plasma is observed in hyperaldosteronism, application of diuretics. This results in myodystrophy
Sodium and pottassium take part in regulation of pH of blood. This function is due to the formation of buffers’ systems. There are next buffers’ systems in blood plasma: 1) hydrocarbonate’s (H2CO3/NaHCO3); 2) phosphate’s (NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4); 3) protein’s (HPr/NaPr). Buffers’ systems occur in erythrocytes too: 1) hydrocarbonate’s (H2CO3/KHCO3); 2) phosphate’s (KH2PO4/K2HPO4); 3) hemoglobin’s (HHb/KHb, HHBO2/KHbO2)
Acidosis is a phenomenon of increase of acidic products (CO2, H+ ) and decrease of basic products (OH- ). Buffers’ systems take part in regulation of pH. For example, hydrocarbonate’s buffer system:
H2CO3/NaHCO3 + [H+] NaHCO3 + [H+] Na+ + H2CO3 (H2O+CO2).
Acidosis may be respiratory (in pneumonia because lack of oxygen and excess of CO2 is observed) and metabolic (e.g. ketoacidosis in diabetes mellitus, lactate acidosis in hypoxia).
Alkalosis is a phenomenon of increase of bases (OH-) and decrease of acidic products (CO2 and protons).
H2CO3/NaHCO3 + [OH-] H2CO3 + [OH-] H2O + HCO3- (anions of bicarbonates are excreted through the kidneys with urine).
Alkalosis may be respiratory (decrease of CO2 in hyperventilation) and metabolic (increase of formation and intake of alkalies).
In details see this topic (Acidosis and alkalosis) in pathologic physiology and textbook of biochemistry and also table below).