E. Learning and life

This is by no means an ideal translation, since learning tends to refer mainly to arts subjects when used in this way.

However, it may be taken here in its general, verbal sense, and in any case it is less ambiguous than science.

F. Branch of learning.

Knowledge could be used instead of learning in (f). It also has the same meaning as наука in the sentence A doctoral thesis must be an original contribution to knowledge.

Академия наук can be translated literally as Academy of Sciences, since this is accepted as a loan translation for something which does not exist in Britain. In Britain a similar function is fulfilled by the various learned societies, such as the Royal Society, for natural scientists, and being a member of a learned society is comparable to being a member of the Academy of Sciences.

Although the term academy of sciences is an international one, it is doubtful whether it would be correctly understood by the average English person, and an explanation may be necessary in some cases.

Кандидат/доктор наук are also translated literally in most cases, as candidate/doctor of sciences.

научный

Scientific can be used in a general sense only in certain cases such as:

method - научный метод

scientific approach - научный подход

principles - научные принципы

It's unscientific – это ненаучно.

Even here, however, the word scholarly is preferred by some people, especially with reference to the arts.

In other cases scientific usually has a narrower application than научный, and such expressions as scientific work / society / article / conference refer only to the natural sciences. Moreover, scientific in such cases does not necessarily imply research; it may mean simply "relating to the natural sciences", in contrast to the arts.

We therefore need a different word for научный in such cases. As with наука, research is sometimes the best translation.

научная работа — research (work)

научный работник — research worker or researcher

старший / младший научный сотрудник – senior / junior research associate

научно-исследовательский институт – research institute.

Scholarly work is used by some people in formal style in the sense of research (work).

Learned is a more appropriate translation of научный in the following expressions:

Научное общество — learned society.

However, this is not appropriate for a student society.

Cтуденческое научное общество is best translated as students’ research society (although there are no such societies in England, students’ societies being mainly recreational).

Научный труд — learned work

Note that work here is used countably, in contrast to its uncountable use in research/scholarly work.

научный журнал— (learned) journal

научная статья — learned article

научный язык — learned/academic language

научное слово — learned word

Except for the first two expressions, learned here tends to refer mainly to arts subjects. Scientific can be used instead with reference to the natural sciences, but, as stated above, the resulting expressions will not necessarily imply investi­gation.

In the following cases the word научный need not be translated separately, because that concept is expressed by English noun.

научный доклад — paper

научный журнал — journal

A journal is usually, although not always, learned. Less serious publications are generally called magazines.

научный руководитель — supervisor

However, supervisor is understood in this sense only within the context of higher education and research.

ученый

Unfortunately, there is no English word which applies equally to all branches of knowledge, and the word ученый must therefore be translated in different ways, depending on the context.

Scientist can be used with reference to the natural sciences. However, it must be remembered that a scientist is not necessarily engaged in research.

Scholar is often the best translation with reference to the arts.

Sometimes the combined expression scientists and scholars is used with general reference. This awkward phrase indicates the need for a general term which the language has not yet produced.

Researcher is sometimes used to denote anyone who carries out research, in any field.

Academic (as a noun) can be used in some cases. Although it is not an exact equivalent, it has the advantage of referring equally to the arts and the sciences.