10. Перевод многофункциональных слов

1. Функции глагола to be

Функции	Примеры	Перевод
1.смысловй глагол со значе­нием “быть” “находиться”	The point is in the middle of the curve.	Точка находится в середине кривой.
2.Глагол-связка. Переводится: “быть, являться”, состоять в, заключаться в”.	Maximum error is 2.5%.	Максимальная погрешность составляет 25%.
3. Вспомогательный глагол: а) для образования форм Progressive Tenses. б) Passive voice (все времена).	They were making various observations for over a year This problem is faced daily in manufacturing concern.	Они проводили различные наблюдения больше года. С этой проблемой сталкиваются ежедневно в производственном процессе.
4. В значении модального глагола, выражающего долженствование.	We are to conduct this experiment.	Мы должны провести этот эксперимент.

2. Функции глагола to have

Функции	Примеры	Перевод
1. Смысловой глагол со значением “иметь, обладать”	An object at rest has no kinetic energy.	Тело, находящееся в покое, не обладает кинетической энергией.
2. Вспомогательный глагол для образования Perfect Tenses	They have already obtai­ned the necessary data.	Они уже получили необходимые данные.
3. Модальный глагол	They have to study the results.	Они должны изучить результаты.

3. Функции слова one

Функция и значения	Примеры	Перевод
1. Числительное “один”, “одна”, “одно”	Energy can be converted from one form into another.	Энергию можно преобра­зо­вать из одной формы в другую.
2. Неопределенно-личное местоимение; не переводится	One sees virus particles with the help of an electron microscope..	При помощи электронного микроскопа видны вирусы.
3. one-ones; заместитель существительного, переводится существительным, которое заменяет, или не переводится	Volta converted chemical energy into electrical one. This method is the one which is much spoken about.	Вольта преобразовал хими­ческую энергию в электри­ческую. Это метод, о котором много говорят.

4. Функции местоимения it

Функция и значения	Примеры	Перевод
1.Личное местоимение “он”, “она” “оно”	This is a very urgent case and we will discuss it immediately.	Это срочное дело и мы обсудим его немедленно.
2. Указательное местоиме­ние “это”	Experiments have shown that it is not so.	Опыты показали, что это не так.
3. Формальное подлежа­щее безличного предло­жения (не переводиться)	It is not easy to overcome the force of gravity.	Нелегко преодолеть cилу притяжения.
4. Вводные слово в пред­ложениях с эмфатичес­кой конструкцией; переводиться “именно”, “только”, и др.	It is from radio that the subject of electronics was born.	Именно радио положило начало электронике.

5. Функции слова due (to)

Часть речи	Имя прилагательное		Групповой предлог due to
	Due	due (to)
Употребляется	в функции определения	в функции именной части составного сказуемого	управляет существительным
Признаки	стоит перед определяемым существительным	стоит после глагола–связки	стоит перед управля­емым существитель­ным
Перевод на русский язык	должный, надлежащий	вызываться, обуславливаться, происходить, вследствие, из-за	из-за, ввиду, вслед­ствие, благодаря

6. Функции слов only, very

Часть речи	only – прилагательное very – прилагательное	only – наречие very – наречие
Переводится	only – единственный very – тот самый, самый	only – только very – очень

7. Функции слов after, very, before, since, till, until, for, because of, because

Часть речи	Предлог		Наречие	Союз
	Места	Времени
After	за, вслед	после	затем, потом, после	после того, как
Before	перед	до, перед, прежде чем	раньше, прежде	прежде чем;
Since		с, после	с тех пор	с тех пор как, так как, поскольку
Till, until	До, вплоть, до	до		(до тех пор) пока….не
For	для, ради, за	в течение, на срок, в продолжение		так как, потому что, ибо
Because(of) because		из–за вследствие		потому что; т.к.

8. Функции слов both, either, neither, whether

Часть речи	Местоимение	Наречие	Сочинительный составной (парный союз)
Both	Both articles – обе статьи they both both of them – оба они	–––––––––––––	both…and … как…так и …; и…и…
Neither	neither article neither of the articles ни та, ни другая статья neither of them ни одна из них	также, тоже не (при утвердительной форме глагола) Neither do I - И я тоже (не)	Neither …nor Ни …ни
Either	either article either of the articles either of them каждая статья, обе статьи, любая из них	также, тоже (при отрицательной форме глагола) I don’t like it either. Мне он тоже не нравится.	Either …or Или…или Либо …либо
Whether	whether of these articles Которая, (какая) статья, из …, который из двух	––––––––––––	Whether…or Или…или

Задание 1.

Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на выделенные многофункциональные слова, и сравните свой перевод с предлагаемым вариантом перевода для самоконтроля. Если вы допустили ошибку, обратитесь к объяснению, предложенному выше.

As a feedback linearization of the system, the control input is defined by computed – torque method.	В качестве линеаризации обратной связи системы управляющий вход определяется методом численного расчета вращающего момента.
Since each object is a self-contained entity, you can move and change its properties.	Так как каждый объект является автономным модулем, вы можете перемещать и изменять его свойства.
The Internet is as a collection of communities as a collection of technologies, and its success is largely attributable to both satisfying basic community needs as well as utilizing the community in an effective way to push the infrastructure forward..	Интернет – это как собрание сообществ, как собрание технологий, и своим успехом он во многом обязан как удовлетворению основных нужд сообщества, так и эффективному использованию сообщества для развития инфраструктуры.
Based on the pricing for feed-forward amplifiers between 30 and 40 watts sold today, one can calculate theoretical fixed and variable costs.	Учитывая цены продающихся сегодня усилителей с прямой связью мощностью между 30 и 40 ваттами, можно рассчитать теоретическую фиксированную и переменную стоимости.
As the electrode gap decreased, bond strength increased.	Поскольку зазор между электродами уменьшился, надежность связи увеличилась.
The parasitic inductance associated with the bypass capacitors often creates stability problems either in band or at higher frequencies.	Паразитная индуктивность, связанная с блокировочными конденсаторами, часто создает проблемы стабильности или в полосе пропускания или при более высоких частотах.
Because of competition in the market, capital needs to be invested in developing new product lines and production techniques and in acquiring assets for future expansion.	Из-за конкуренции на рынке капитал нужно инвестировать в разработку новых производственных линий и промышленных методов и в приобретение активов для будущего расширения.
Since more liquidity is needed, and the present system isn’t going to provide it, proposals for reform have naturally been made.	Так как необходима большая ликвидность, а существующая система не намерена обеспечивать ее, естественно, были сделаны предложения о реформе.
Whether it is a tragedy or farce, the tendency of history to repeat itself is well documented.	Трагедия ли это или фарс, но тенденция истории к повторению самой себя подтверждена документально.
Sometimes marketers seem to stick with the same packaging ideas year after year, regardless of whether they are the best possible design.	Иногда торговцы используют один и тот же вид упаковки из года в год независимо от того, представляет ли он наилучший дизайн.
Design cycles are correspondingly reduced due to shorter design iteration times.	Процесс конструирования соответственно сокращается благодаря тому, что уменьшается количество повторных дизайнов.
The development system supports both software simulation and in-circuit debugging techniques.	Система разработки поддерживает как программное моделирование, так и методы внутрисхемной отладки.
It was easy for him to prepare for his report for he had all the necessary material.	Ему было легко подготовиться к своему докладу, так как у него были все необходимые материалы.
Volt is the very unit which is used for measuring potential difference.	Вольт - это та самая единица, которая используется для измерения разности потенциалов.
The resistance and potential difference between the two ends of a conductor are the very factors to determine the amount of current.	Сопротивление и разность потенциалов между концами проводника – это те факторы, которые используются для определения величины тока.

Задание 2.

Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на выделенные многофункциональные слова.

Radio-Electronics

1. It is common practice to use a human being as one of the links in the chain of elements of a control system.

2. The emission or evaporation of electrons takes place at lower temperature than does that of atoms.

3. As radio waves travel away from their point of origin, they become attenuated or weakened.

4. The amplification may be applied to the radio-frequency currents before detection, in which case it is called radio-frequency amplification; or it may be applied to the rectified currents after detection, which is called audio-frequency amplification.

5. The system is earthed as before, by connecting the neutral conductor to an earthed plate or other earthing connection.

6. The unit which is used for measuring e.m.f. is the volt.

7. Electrical phenomena have been known to man for a very long time.

8. That semiconductor device is more efficient than the one under consideration.

9. Since the collector junction is reverse-biased in a transistor, the collector voltage is much higher than that of the emitter.

10. The crystal is known as P-type germanium, because of the presence of positive holes.

11. Semiconductors are materials that are neither good conductors nor acceptable insulators.

12. The word semiconductor means rather generally a material which has electrical conductivity half-way between that of a metallic conductor, and that of an insulator.

13. A wet insulator may very well be a semiconductor in some general sense, but it is regarded as hazardous rather than as useful electrically.

14. One should mind the conditions the instrument is designed for.

15. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field, and so on.

16. Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition, so fields due to particular particles or time-varying electric or magnetic fields contribute to the fields due to other causes.

17. The coding used in such data is similar to that used with radio waves.

18. As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites an electron, elevating it to a higher energy level.

19. Depending on the circumstances, it may behave as a wave or as particles. As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity.

20. One solution, is trivial. To see the more interesting one, we utilize vector identities, which work for any vector.

Computer Engineering

1. As a side note, there might be other new technologies introduced as this paper was written.

2. Ensuring that a particular file or document will always be available may be at least as important as ensuring that only authorized users can access that file or document.

3. When subjects leave an organization altogether, their rights must be terminated rather than merely suspended.

4. Travelling on business these days means that you still need to keep in touch with the office no matter where you are.

5. In order to do such iterative development from a prototype it is important that the expert system is written in a way that it can easily be inspected and modified.

6. Since the aim automates the system, the part description should be in a computer readable format.

7. In order to perform the process planning, a process planner must be able to understand and analyze requirements, understand the interactions between the parts, manufacturing, quality, and cost, possess analytical capabilities.

8. If the keys are stored sequentially then the time taken by the insertion operation may be of order N.

9. Since most of the global considerations are based on geometric relationships, some kind of geometric reasoning mechanism needs to be built in.

10. The shift operators introduced earlier act as permutations of the seven states of the cyclic system.

11. What properties does a code have to satisfy so that it can be used to protect well against a given error model?

12. An end-user wishing to retrieve information directly from a data source, such as an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) database, faces a number of significant challenges.

13. The difference is whether or not the patterns that are minded are represented in terms of a structure that can be examined, reasoned about, and used to infirm future decisions.

14. Common channels can be accessed both by idle mode and dedicated mode mobiles.

15. An RR-session is always initiated by a mobile station through the access procedure, either for an outgoing call, or in response to a paging message.

16. This is because the BSC usually does not know whether the poor signal quality is due to multipath fading or to the mobile having moved to another cell.

17. The purpose of the simulation study is to examine if the direct field and later reflections from the walls can be separated using time windowing.

18. That is the difference between the logical and physical organization of the data.

19. On the whole a file structure will specify the logical structure of the data, that is the relationships that will exist between data items independently of the way in which these relationships may actually be realized within any computer.

20. There are several reasons. One is that data base systems are general purpose systems whereas automated library and retrieval systems are special purpose.

21. Each of these methods has disadvantages. The last one may be given the same address frequently if there are patterns in the keys.

22. If one looks carefully at some of the implementations of cluster methods one discovers that the classificatory system is represented inside the computer by one of the more conventional file structures.

23. The terminology is based on that introduced by Harary.

24. Notice how the rings at a lower level are contained in those at a higher level.

25. Not all users of clustering techniques see it this way, and so the current scene is rather confused.

Information Security

1. The operating system must ensure that only specific operations can occur to the capabilities in the system.

2. A capability is defined to be a protected object reference which, by virtue of its possession by a user process, grants that process the capability (hence the name) to interact with an object in certain ways.

3. In traditional operating systems, programs often communicate with each other and with storage using references like those in the first two examples.

4. One novel approach to solving this problem involves the use of an orthogonally persistent operating system.

5. A system state is defined to be "secure" if the only permitted access modes of subjects to objects are in accordance with a security policy.

6. The notion of a "secure state" is defined, and it is proven that each state transition preserves security by moving from secure state to secure state.

7. With Bell-LaPadula, users can create content only at or above their own security level.

8. Another interpretation of the tranquility principles is that they both apply only to the period of time during which an operation involving an object or subject is occurring.

9. Therefore one can show if rights can leak with respect to a given safety model.

10. In simple terms, a computer is modeled as a machine with inputs and outputs.

11. This is a very strict policy, in that a computer system with covert channels may comply with, say, the Bell-LaPadula Model, but will not comply with non-interference.

12. There may be only one or two commercially available product that has been verified to comply with this policy, and these would essentially be as simple as switches and one-way information filters.

13. The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any interference.

14. A proper attack does not need to be very high tech, or well funded, for a power outage at an airport alone can cause repercussions worldwide.

15. Lightning, power fluctuations, blown fuses, and various other power outages instantly disable all computer systems, since they are dependent on electrical source.

16. They provide some protection from online intrusion, but since they allow some applications (e.g. web browsers) to connect to the Internet, they don't protect against some unpatched vulnerabilities in these applications.

17. If one of these API servers has a bug, the kernel and the other servers are not affected.

18. The early Multics operating system was notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design.

19. Multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up.

20. If the operating environment is not based on a secure operating system capable of maintaining a domain for its own execution.

21. Since the early days of writing, heads of state and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of written correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering.

22. A malignant virus is one that attempts to inflict malicious damage to your computer, although the damage may not be intentional.

23. An analogy for public key encryption is that of a locked mailbox with a mail slot.

24. Since keys are subject to potential discovery by a cryptographic adversary, they need to be changed often and kept secure during distribution and in service.

25. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information.