Vocabulary

aсquire v приобретать

acquisition strategy n стратегия приобретения

commodity n товар; сырьевой товар

commodity bargain n торговая сделка

corporate tax n налог с корпорации

Department of Justice n Министерство юстиции; Департамент юстиции ( в США)

Federal Trade Commission n Федеральная торговая комиссия

from 1890 onwards с 1890 до настоящего времени; from … onwards с тех

пор

implement v выполнять

product liability n ответственность за качество выпускаемой продукции

property n имущество; предметы, которые могут являться объектом собственности.

personal property индивидуальная собственность

real property недвижимое имущество

commercial property коммерческая собственность, предназначенная к сделкам, продаже и т.д.

property market рынок недвижимости

restraint n ограничение

E Fill in the gaps with the words describing law firms’ activities.

specialize deal prepare advise defend provide ensure represent

Law firms 1)__________ businesses, governments, financial institutions and individuals on various legal questions. They 2)__________ legal support to organizations in the key areas: finance, banking, marketing, etc. Some law firms 3)__________ in a definite branch of law. Experienced lawyers of the firm 4)__________ with all types of property transactions including investment, leasing and development projects. They 5)__________ professional expertise in intellectual property matters. Sometimes lawyers have to 6)__________ interests of clients in court. They 7)__________ the case and 8)__________ their client.

Over to you

Being a lawyer is regarded as one of the best professions in many countries. Think about what the different areas of specialization are, and which you would choose, or have chosen, and why. Make notes under the headings: choice of specialization; number of years of training; income expectations; responsibilities; kinds of clients; need for foreign languages; likely challenges and opportunities. Add any other points that occur to you.

CHAPTER XI COMPANY LAW

Unit 34 Company Formation and Management

Before you read

Discuss these questions.

1 What types of companies do you know?

2 What the world’s biggest companies can you think of? What industries are

they in?

3 Would you like to work for one of these companies?

Text A

Introduction to Company Law

This text provides an introduction to the key terms used when talking about companies as legal entities, how they are formed and how they are managed. It also covers the legal duties of company directors and the courts’ role in policing them.

1 Read the text quickly, then match these phrases (a-f) with the paragraphs

(1-6).

a directors’ duties b management roles c company definition

d company health e partnership definition f company formation

1. A company¹ is a business association which has the character of a legal person, distinct from its officers and shareholders. This is significant, as it allows the company to own property in its own name, continue perpetually dispute changes in ownership, and insulate the owners against personal liability. However in some instances, for example when the company is used to perpetrate fraud or acts ultra vires, the court may ‘lift² the corporate veil’ and subject the shareholders to personal liability.

2. By contrast, a partnership is a business association which, strictly speaking, is not considered to be a legal entity but, rather, merely an association of owners. However, in order to avoid impractical results, such as the partnership being precluded from owning property in its own name, certain rules of partnership law treat a partnership as if it were a legal entity. Nonetheless, partners are not insulated against personal liability, and the partnership may cease to exist upon a change in ownership, for example, when one of the partners dies.

3. A company is formed upon the issuance of a certificate of incorporation³ by the appropriate governmental authority. A certificate of incorporation is issued upon the filing of the constitutional documents of the company, together with statutory forms and the payment of a filing fee. The ‘constitution’ of a company consists of two documents. One, the memorandum of association⁴, states the object of the company and the details of its authorized capital. The second document, the articles of association⁵, contain provisions for the internal management of the company, for example, shareholders’ annual general meetings⁶, or AGMs, and extraordinary general meetings⁷, the board of directors, corporate contracts and loans.

4. The Management of a company is carried out by its officers, who include a director, manager and/or company secretary. A director is appointed to carry out and control the day-to-day affairs of the company. The structure, procedures and work of the board of directors, which as a body govern the company, are determined by the company’s articles of association. A manager is delegated supervisory control of the affairs of the company. A manager’s duties to the company are generally more burdensome than those of the employees, who basically owe a duty of confidentiality to the company. Every company must have a company secretary, who cannot also be the sole director of the company. This requirement is not applicable if there is more than one director. A company’s auditors are appointed at general meetings. The auditors do not owe a duty to the company as a legal entity, but, rather, to the shareholders, to whom the auditor’s report is addressed.

5. The duties owed by directors to a company can be classified into two groups. The first is a duty of care and the second is a fiduciary duty. The duty of care requires that the directors must exercise the care of an ordinarily prudent and diligent person under the relevant circumstances. The fiduciary duty stems from the position of trust and responsibility entrusted to directors. This duty has many aspects, but, broadly speaking, a director must act in the best interests of the company and not for any collateral purpose. However, the courts are generally reluctant to interfere, provided the relevant act or omission involves no fraud, illegality or conflict of interest.

6. Finally, a company’s state of health is reflected in its accounts⁸, including its balance sheet and profit-and-loss account⁹. Healthy profits might lead to a bonus¹⁰ or capitalization issue¹¹ to the shareholders. On the other hand, continuous losses may result in insolvency and the company going into liquidation.

1 (US) corporation 2 (US) pierce 3 (US) generally no official certificate is issued; companies are formed upon the filing of the articles/certificate of incorporation (see footnote 4) 4 (US) articles of incorporation or certificate of incorporation

5 (US) bylaws 6 (US) annual meetings of the shareholders 7 (US) special meetings of the shareholders 8 (US) financial statements 9 (US) profit-and-loss statement or income statement 10 (US) stock dividend 11 (US) cash dividend