Chapter VI.. The Adverb

§1. General Notion

The adverb is a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or modify an action, state, or quality. It may also intensify a quality or characteristics.

From this definition it is difficult to define adverbs as a class, because they comprise a most heterogeneous group of words, and there is consi­derable overlap between the class and other word classes. They have many kinds of form, meaning and function. Alongside such undoubtful adverbs as here, now, often, seldom, always, there are many others which also function as words of other classes. Thus, adverbs like dead (dead tired), clear (to get clear away), clean (I've clean forgotten), slow, easy (he would say that slow and easy) coincide with corresponding adjectives (a dead body, clear waters, clean hands). Adverbs like past, above are homonymous with prepositions. There is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, where, how, why used either as interrogative words or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses.

Where shall we go? (an interrogative pronominal adverb)

We’ll go where you want (a conjunctive pronominal adverb).

Some adverbs may be used rather like a verb, as in “Up. Jenkins! Down, Peter!” where the first word is like an imperative.

In many cases the border-line between adverbs and words of the other classes is defined syntactically.

He walked past. (Adverb)

He walked past the house. (Preposition)

They took the dog in. (Adverb)

They left the dog in the house. (Preposition)

He did everything slowly but surely. (Adverb)

Surely you know him. (Modal word)

There are three adverbs connected with numerals: once, twice, and thrice (the latter being archaic). They denote measure or frequency. (E.g. She went there once a week. I saw him twice last month. Twice is also used in the structure twice as long, etc. He is twice as tall as his brother. She is twice as clever).

Beginning with three the idea of frequency or repetition is expressed by the phrases three times, four times; (E.g. He went there four times; he is four times as bigger; she is ten times cleverer).

§ 2. Morphological composition

Adverbs vary in their structure. There are simple, derived, compound, and composite adverbs.

Simple adverbs:

- after, here, well, now, soon, etc.

In derived adverbs the most common suffix is -ly, by means of which new adverbs are coined from adjectives and participles:

- occasionally, lately, immediately, constantly, purely, slowly, charmingly, etc.The less common suffixes are the following:

-wise -ward(s) -fold -like -most -way(s)

clockwise, crabwise, corkscrew wise, education wise onward(s), backward(s), homeward(s), eastward(s) twofold, manifold warlike innermost, outermost longways, sideways

Of these suffixes, the first two are more productive than the rest. Compound adverbs are formed of two stems: - sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc. Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-forms:- a great deal, a little bit, far enough, now and then, from time to time, sort of, kind of, a hell of, a lot of, a great deal of.