§ 6. The Category of Case

In the modern English language there are two cases: the common case and the genitive (possessive) case. The common case doesn’t have any flexions while the genitive case is formed with the help of the flexion –s. We show possession in English with the genitive form of a noun. This means we normally use ’s or s’ for people and some living creatures. We put the possessive before the noun it refers to. (E.g. Frank’s car). The simplest rule to remember is: Add ’s to any personal noun, unless it is in the form of a plural ending in –s, in this case just add an apostrophe (’). (E.g. A girl’s book; a girls’ school).

Nouns forming their plural by changing the root vowel as well as irregular nouns take the apostrophe s in the plural. (E.g. a man’s hat; men’s hat; ox’s tale-oxen’s tales)

Famous names ending in –s form the genitive case in two ways: Dickens’ novels, Dickens’s novels.

We add ’s:

-to singular nouns and names not ending in –s (E.g. a boy’s tie)

-to irregular plural nouns. (E.g. children’s games).

-to singular nouns ending in –s (E.g. An actress’s career; a waitress’s job)

The genitive case has a very restricted meaning; it shows that the noun in this form is used in the form of the attribute. (E.g. My sister’s dress.). The possessive case denotes the person to which refers the subject expressed by another noun. (E.g. The girl’s eyes.). The use of the possessive case is restricted. Not all the nouns can be used in the genitive case. We use the possessive case with nouns, denoting:

-living beings (people and animals). (E.g. My friend’s room, the lion’s skin);

-planets (E.g. The sun’s ray, the earth surface);

-time, destination, sum, space, weight, the noun “world”, and when the first noun is an organization (E.g. A month’s absence, two miles’ distance, one dollar’s worth, an hour’s journey, two tones’ car, world’s best museums, the company’s success );

-seasons, seas, rivers, cities, countries, titles of newspapers, ships. (E.g. Summer’s sports, the Ocean’s roar, England’s policy, the Pravda’s editorial).

Possessive case is used in the following set expressions:

For heaven’s sake, to one’s heart’s delight, at one’s wit’s end, a stone’s throw, a hair’s breadth, a pin’s head, a needle’s ear, out of harm’s way.

The possessive case can be referred not only to the noun modified but also to the whole group. (E.g. The Prime Minister of England’s speech).

The absolute genitive (or omission of the noun after ’s).

We generally omit the noun after ’s when referring to work places, shops and houses. (E.g. The doctor’s rather than the doctor’s surgery, my aunt’s, rather than my aunt’s house).

Chapter II. The Article

§ 1. General Notions

The article is a structural part of speech used with nouns. There are two types of articles in Modern English: the indefinite article (a/an-[ə]/ [ən]) and the definite article (the-[ði·]-before a vowel sound-[ði· æpl]/ [ðə]-before a consonant sound-[ðə pen]). (E.g. an hour, a table, a student).

The indefinite article has developed from the Old English numeral an (one), and as a result of its origin, it is used only with nouns in the singular.

The definite article has developed from the Old English demonstrative pronoun se and in some cases it has preserved this demonstrative meaning in Modern English.

The use of the indefinite article shows that the object is presented as belonging to a class.

The use of the definite article shows that a particular object is meant.

The absence of articles with class nouns in the plural, with abstract nouns and nouns of material has grammatical significance: it shows that the nouns are used in a general sense.

The indefinite article is to refer a person or a thing denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar persons or objects. It shows that the noun is taken in a relatively general sense. Otherwise stated, the indefinite article per­forms a classifying function. (E.g. This is a man. Not a woman. I have just seen a young woman waiting for you. Not an old woman. She is a doctor. Not a tea­cher. London is a big city. Not a village. There is an apple for you. Not an orange. I have a car. Not a bicycle)

The indefinite article is always used to point to a single person, thing, or notion and thus determines only countable nouns in the singular.

The definite article is to identify and individualize a person or a thing denoted by a noun. It demonstrates that the noun is taken in its concrete, individual sense. Thus the definite article performs an individualizing function. (E.g. This is the man I spoke to yesterday. I saw the young woman you had told me about. London is one of the biggest cities in the world. The apple is for you.)

The definite article may determine nouns of any class both in the singular and in plural.

The zero article or the meaningful absence of the article is to signify that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most generalized idea of the person, thing, or notion denoted. Thus, the zero article performs a generalizing function and basically may refer to nouns of any class. (E.g. Life is a wonderful thing).