36. Development of vocabulary in Mod e.

The language in NE is growing very rapidly, the amount of actually existing words being impossible to estimate. The principal inner means in NE is the appearance of new words formed by means of conversion. Usually new words are formed by acquiring a new paradigm and function within a sentence. Very many new words appear in NE due to borrowing. It is necessary to say that the process of borrowing, the source of loan words, the nature of the new words is different from Middle English and their appearance in the language cannot be understood unless sociolinguistic factors are taken into consideration.

New English borrowings may be subdivided into borrowings of the Early New English period – 15-17 centuries, the period preceeding the establishment of the literary norm, and loan words which entered the language after the establishment of the literary norm – in the 18-20 centuries, the period whish is generally alluded to a slate New English.

Early new English borrowings – borrowings into the English language are primarily due to political events and also to the cultural and trade relations between the English people and peoples in other countries. In the 14 century the epoch of renaissance, there appeared in the English language many words borrowed from the Italian: cameo, fresco, violin, balcony, grotto, volcano.

In the 16 century – Spanish and Portuguese words: armada, negro, matador.

And also Latin: - verbs with the characteristic endings – ate, -ute (separate, irritate, contribute)

- adjectives ending in –ant, -ent, -ior, -al (reluctant, superior, senior, junior, dental, filian)

In the 17 century due to relations with the peoples of America such words were borrowed as: potato, tobacco, cannibal, wigwam

French borrowings – after the restoration:

Ball, ballet, naive …

Late New English borrowings (18-20 centuries)

German: wagon, boy, girl

French: machine, garage, police

Indian: bungalow, indigo Chinese: coolie, tea

Arabic: caravan, divan, coffee, orange, cotton, chess

Australian: kangaroo, boomerang

Russian: before the October revolution the borrowings were mainly words reflecting Russian realia of the time samovar, tsar, taiga

After the Revolution – Soviet, Bolshevik, kolhoz

Cultural and technical achievements are reflected in such borrowings as sputnik, lunokhod and recently such political terms as glasnost, perestroika.

In New English there are also appeared words formed on the basis of Greek and Latin vocabulary. They are mainly scientific or technical terms: telephone, telefax, microphone, sociology, politology.

36. The unstressed vocalism and its role in the morphological structure of the language.

46. The Linguistic Consequences of the Scandinavian Invasion.

We may recall that since 18^th century the British Isles were ravaged by sea rovers from Scandinavian, first by Danes, later – by Norwegians. Gradually, by the end of 9^th century they extended their territory southwards from their original foothold in Northumbria until practically all the land north of the Thames was under their control; more than a half of England was yielded to the invaders and recognized as Danish territory – “Danelaw”.

In the year 878 Alfred, king of Wessex, gained an overwhelming victory over the Danes and made them sign the Wedmore Treaty. At the beginning of the 11^th century the Scandinavian influence became still stronger as a result of a new series of Danish invasions which ended in 1017 in the complete occupation of England. For the next 25 years England was ruled by Danish kings. The Scandinavian influence manifested itself primarily in the vocabulary, several hundred words being borrowed from the Scandinavian dialects. In the areas of the heaviest settlements the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which is attested by geographical names. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Cumberland – up to 75% of the place-names are Danish or Norwegian.

The increase regional differences of English in the 11^th & 12^th centuries must partly be attributed to the Scandinavian influence. We had a large admixture of Scandinavian words in Early ME records coming from the North East whereas extemporary texts from other regions are practically devoid of Scandinavian borrowings.

In later ages the Scandinavian element passed into other regions. The incorporation of the Scandinavian element in the London & Standard English was brought about by the changing linguistic situation in England: the mixture of the dialects and the growing linguistic unification.