23.2. Ethnical Religions

Ethnic religion may include officially sanctioned and organized civil religions with an organized clergy, but they are characterized in that adherents generally are defined by their ethnicity, and conversion essentially equates to cultural assimilation to the people in question. Contrasted to this are imperial cults that are defined by political influence detached from ethnicity. A partly overlapping concept is that of folk religion referring to ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of an institutionalized religion (for instance, folk Christianity). Adherents of an ethnic religion may constitute an ethno-religious group.

Religion of Egypt

Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of beliefs and rituals which were an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with a multitude of deities who were believed to be present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of nature. The myths about these gods were meant to explain the origins and behavior of the forces they represented, and the practices of Egyptian religion were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor. Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the king of Egypt. Although he was a human, the pharaoh was believed to be descended from the gods. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the gods, and was obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain order in the universe. Therefore, the state dedicated enormous resources to the performance of these rituals and to the construction of the temples where they were carried out. Individuals could also interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for their help through prayer or compelling them to act through magic. Another important aspect of the religion was the belief in the afterlife and funerary practices. The Egyptians made great efforts to ensure the survival of their souls after death, providing tombs, grave goods, and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased. The most important of all Egyptian myths was the myth of Osiris and Isis. It tells of the divine ruler Osiris, who was murdered by his jealous brother Set, a god often associated with chaos. Osiris' sister and wife Isis resurrected him so that he could conceive an heir, Horus. Osiris then entered the underworld and became the ruler of the dead. Once grown, Horus fought and defeated Set to become king himself. Set's association with chaos, and the identification of Osiris and Horus as the rightful rulers, provided a rationale for pharaoh succession and portrayed the pharaohs as the upholders of order. At the same time, Osiris' death and rebirth were related to the Egyptian agricultural cycle, in which crops grew in the wake of the Nile inundation, and provided a template for the resurrection of human souls after death.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra) and was formerly among the world's largest religions. It was probably founded some time before the 6th century BCE in Persia (Iran). In 2004, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated at between 145,000 and 210,000.

Zoroastrians believe that there is one universal and transcendent God, Ahura Mazda. He is said to be the one uncreated Creator to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation (truth and order) is the antithesis of chaos (falsehood and disorder). The resulting conflict involves the entire universe, including humanity, which has an active role to play in the conflict. The religion states that active participation in life through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will, and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of monasticism. Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu, at which point the universe will undergo a cosmic renovation and time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation - even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to "darkness"- will be reunited in Ahura Mazda, returning to life in the undead form. At the end of time, a savior-figure (a Saoshyant) will bring about a final renovation of the world, in which the dead will be revived. In Zoroastrianism, the Creator Ahura Mazda is all good, and no evil originates from Him. Thus, in Zoroastrianism good and evil have distinct sources, with evil trying to destroy the creation of Mazda, and good trying to sustain it.

The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, of which a significant portion has been lost, and mostly only the liturgies of which have survived. According to contemporary researches, Zoroaster was born in either Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan. He was born into a Bronze Age culture with a polytheistic religion, which included animal sacrifice and the ritual use of intoxicants. This religion was quite similar to the early forms of Hinduism in India. Zoroaster had a wife, three sons, and three daughters. Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians, with their many gods and oppressive class structure. When Zoroaster was 30 years old, he received a mystical vision that radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others. Zoroaster believed in one creator God, teaching that only one God was worthy of worship. Furthermore, some of the deities of the old religion, the Daevas (Devas in Sanskrit), appeared to delight in war and strife. Zoroaster said that these were evil spirits and were workers of Angra Mainyu, God's adversary.

Religion of Greece and Rome

Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or "cults" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to other islands.

Many Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera though philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.

Greek religion had a large mythology. It consisted largely of stories of gods and of how they affected humans on the Earth. Myths often revolved around heroes, and their actions, such as Heracles and his twelve labors, Odysseus and his voyage home, Jason and the quest for the Golden Fleece and Theses and the Minotaur. Many of the myths revolved around the Trojan war between Greece and Troy. For instance, the epic poem, “The Iliad”, by Homer, is based around the war. Many other tales are based around the aftermath of the war, such as the murder of King Agamemnon of Argos, and the adventures of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca.

There was no one set Greek cosmogony, or creation myth. Different religious groups believed that the world had been created in different ways. One Greek creation myth was told in Hesiod's Theogony. It stated that at first there was only a primordial deity called Chaos, who gave birth to various other primordial gods, such as Gaia, Tartars and Eros, who then gave birth to more gods, in particular the Titans, who then gave birth to the first Olympians. The mythology largely survived and was added to in order to form the later Roman mythology. The Greeks and Romans had been literate societies, and much mythology was written down in the forms of epic poetry (such as The Iliad, The Odyssey and the Argonautics) and plays (such as Euripides' and Aristophanes'). The mythology became popular in Christian post-Renaissance Europe, where it was often used as a basis for the works of artists like Botticelli, Michelangelo and Rubens.

The Greeks believed in an underworld where the spirits of the dead went to after their death. If a funeral was never performed, it was commonly believed that that person's spirit would never reach the underworld and so would haunt the world as a ghost forever. There were various different views of the underworld, and the idea generally changed over time. One of the most widespread areas of the underworld was known as Hades. This was ruled over by a god, a brother of Zeus, who was called Hades (his realm was originally called 'the place of Hades'). Another realm, called Tartars, was the place where the damned were thought to go, a place of torment. A third realm, Elysium, was a pleasant place where the virtuous dead and initiates in the mystery cults were said to dwell. The underworld commonly featured in mythology and literature based thereupon.

Far –Eastern Religions. Philosophical Introduction

Before speaking about far eastern religions we must consider the fundamental difference between western thought, or the western philosophical worldview and eastern thought and worldview. While discussing the western world’s model, some scholars symbolically compare it with the nut. The nutshell can be compared with the world of phenomena, i.e. surface of the world that we see, hear, touch, smell, taste. Thus, the phenomenological world can be known by sense organs. But behind the nutshell there must be a nut itself. So, the surface of every phenomenon conceals a hidden essence, which is invisible. The essence makes thing what it is; it is a gist of a thing, its meaning. The essence is like an inner quality of thing – the one that does not depend on quantity. For instance, the essence of table is a special quality that does not change with amount of tables. The essence can be known only by intellect.

As for Abrahamic religion, the essence of man is regarded to be spiritual entity –the soul or heart - the centre of the personality. So, religion concerns with soul activity – shame, guilt, sorrow, gladness, pity, compassion, consciousness. The goal of religion is the salvation of the soul thru the purification. The latter can be reached by prayer, sacraments, rituals and good deeds.

So, western culture regards some secret essence behind each phenomenon. Everything has got its centre and meaning, or logos. That is why the world for western philosophical tradition is “logo-centric” and everything has got its purpose. That is why our world is teleo-centric (from “teleos” – aim, goal, purpose). If it is logo-centric we can cognize it by rational means, and explain it with the help of causal connection, connection between cause and effect. So, western thought is rational.

If we take eastern understanding of the world, eastern worldview the model of the world can be symbolically expressed as nutshell without nut, with no firm centre within it. Instead of the centre there is emptiness. So it means that world represented by the eastern culture has no essence in it, or the essence of the world is nothingness, emptiness, non-being. And the eastern way of the world cognition is not rational and logic, but rather irrational and controversial. Eastern culture does not explain the world by means of causal connection, but prefers to understand it in terms of karma, Tao, and destiny.

Hinduism

The basic ideas of eastern philosophy and religion have been developed by Hinduism. Geography of Buddhism and Hinduism are India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The basic notions of Hinduism are reincarnation, sansara, karma. Hinduism claims that the material world is illusion. As for Buddhism, we may say that it is movement within Hinduism. Buddhists were breakaways, rebels, reformers of the caste society and Hinduism. So, we may say that Buddhism is reformed and developed Hinduism.

It should be remembered that there had been four castes in traditional Hindu society. And still they are though this is not official. There are: caste of priests, so called Brahmin or Brahman, caste of rulers and warriors – Kshatrii; caste of peasants Vai Shi; the caste of servants Shudras. All castes are handed down. Brahmins have been always a hereditary priesthood. They had achieved a prominence and great respect in Hindu society. They controlled the worship that went on in temples, festivals and pilgrims, different rites such as marriage and funerals. And Buddha rebelled against this system and claimed that there is no monopoly on religious truth and everyone may achieve the salvation, not only the Brahmans. You do not have to believe in the existence of Buddha, you must accept his teachings. That is why Hinduism is a national religion, but Buddhism is one of the world religions. Buddhism is more liberal and democratic, and everyone could confess this religion, even being Christian and Muslims. But you can’t become Hindus if you were not born in India.

And it is interesting that Buddha is one of the gods of Hinduism pantheon. Hinduism believes in universal soul – Brahman and individual soul - atman. The purpose of life is when your individual soul dissolves in universal soul. It is like drop that is being spilled into the ocean. The Brahman manifests itself or personified in the major gods in Hinduism, so-called Trinity – Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. Brahma is the god of creation, Shiva is the god of death and destruction, he is the patron of ascetics, Vishnu is a kind god that helps common people. Vishnu has god several reincarnations, they are called avatars. They are Krishna, Buddha, and Ramah (a noble hero of Indian folk epos “Ramayana”).

Taoism

For thousand years Taoism and Confucianism have been integral parts of the Chinese culture. They are indigenous to China. They are more ethical doctrines and philosophical systems than revelations of god. Followers of Taoism claim that Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism, was the teacher of Confucius. Some scholars doubt that Lao Tzu ever lived, or if he did, his was born approximately in 550 B.C. His name is often translated as “old child” or “old philosopher”.

Lao Tzu, being a petty government officer, is considered to be the author of philosophical work “Tao-tei Ching” (“The way and the power of life”). Taoism can be defined as the religion with different levels of comprehension. At the highest philosophical level Taoism attempts to define the ultimate reality of existence. This reality is beyond comprehension by the sense organs and the reasoning mind. It is called Tao. Tao means law and way.

Tao is creative force of all of creation; it can be also regarded as energy. We can know the way by the practice of meditation. Tao is like spirit, infinite and eternal, hidden but always present, the creator of good and evil. It is never born, never dies and it is within every thing and human person. Tao is shapeless, unseen and invisible. Tao is tiny and immense simultaneously. The manifestation (expression) of Tao is Te. Te concerns our moral virtues – the way we understand and practice Tao.

From Tao as invisible creator two competing energies derive, complimentary opposites, so called yin and yang. Nature seeks to find a balanced harmony of these energies, being in state of interaction. Yin is passive and merciful, yang is masterful. The goal of Taoist is to live in harmony with Tao, with nature and to balance these energies. Excess of either energy is harmful. All things follow Tao and the rules of Tao, but Tao follows itself.

Taoism at its common level is also a way to a good, serene life, a way of the perfect human. To know Tao means to know oneself. Tao as spirit can be known when the physical human body is purified of all sensual desires, sex, wealth, power, self-pride, fear and fame.

The central idea of Taoism is practice of u-way, non-doing, non-action, when everything that you need comes in right time and right place and you don’t have to force or fasten it. Thus, u–way is an effortless action. Taoism also proposes special way to personal immortality. Body of man is compared with microcosm, and he should imitate macrocosm, the universe. It is possible to reach the immortality in this material life if one leads ascetic life, refuses from eating meat, wine. And it is very important to practice some special breathing and physical exercises.

The highest level of immortality is when man disappears completely and dissolves himself in immense Tao.

From ontological point of view Tao is nothingness, or emptiness. It penetrates everything. The usefulness of things depends on the emptiness inside it. (Wheel is space between spines, cup – space between boards, room – space between walls, language - silence among words).

Symbol of Taoism is the flow of the water down the river, bending when necessary, running swiftly and slowly, as the river ends its course and flows into the ocean, so one must accept the defeats and victories along the way. Ethics prescribe the ideal formula for a happy life – simplicity, patience and compassion, nonviolence. Virtue comes from within oneself. Lao Tzu claims that men have to stop talking and teaching of benevolence and righteousness and the people will become benevolent and kind.

Life is in state of constant flux, we must learn to accept change. We must accept life as it is, good and bad, painful and pleasurable.

Confucianism

One more religion which is closely identified with China is Confucianism. Historians hesitate to classify the teachings of Confucius as the religion since they seem to be a set of moral axioms rather than religious dogmas. Confucianism minimized traditional aspects of religion, such as seeking salvation through the intervention of God, through prayer and miracles.

It is important to point out that the highest value for Chinese who confess the teaching of Confucius, is material life, but not the after-life experience. Why living here one should practice such moral principles as humanity “jen” – to be modest, just, kind-hearted, - and the feeling of responsibility. The teaching of Confucius was declared the official social dogma. All aspects of social life were ritualized. Confucius made stress on ceremony and rules of behavior.

Confucius, translated as “king of the master” was born in 550 B.C. He was a tutor by profession; he believed that through the means of education a better society could be realized.

Confucius sought moral and political reforms for his country to mitigate the endless series of civil war and violence. Government officials were notoriously corrupt and lazy. China was living in a state of violence and immorality.

Confucius believed all human being were naturally born to be good, to love others. But there had to be a good, compassionate ruler. If China were governed by moral leaders, then the country would become peaceful, law abiding state.

Confucius believed that China once had been ruled by an enlightened ruler, the emperor of Zhou. He was deemed to be a model prince, a pattern for all good things.

The basic principle of Confucius is that just society must have a just ruler. He must rule by the principles of love and virtue, so called “jen”. Originally jen was found among men from the class of aristocrats, those men who practiced courtesy and compassion. The benevolent ruler was not to be chosen by the rest of the people. He had to become from a family of noble ancestors.

The chief Confucius`s question is how can mankind live together in peace, he believed that Mankind had an instinct for group harmony just like bees and ants, but this instinct has to be developed by education. The moral person is the one who obeys the law of the land. An ideal government is neither theocracy nor democracy. The best government comes from benevolent despotism.

Family and home is also important for peace and survival of the nation. If family life is good, then the government and society is good.

The social ideal of China according to Confucius: “Let father would be the father, son – be the son, king – be a king, let everything in the world of chaos and mess would be in right place and fulfill what should be fulfilled. The society must consist of two levels: the highest level, the ones who think and govern, and the lower level – the ones who must subject and work”.

Confucius worked out three types of men – those who are born wise are the highest type of the people. Those who become wise through learning come next and those who are dull and still don’t learn are the lowest type of the people.

Great is the man who knows his country’s history, its art and literature, and above all the art of peace.

Underlying of all his axioms and wisdoms Confucius developed a system of philosophy that he described as the observance of five right relationships: father-son, elder brother- junior one, husband-wife, honor of the ancestors, and finally the obedience to the rulers.

Of all virtues Jen is the greatest one. It is an innate respect for all of humans, all animated and inanimate.

Another principle is li, it includes the golden mean, one must find virtue in moderate enjoyment of pleasures, fame, wealth, marital sex. The bringing up starts from family, where child is taught to fulfill social ceremonies, rituals and traditions.

Judaism

Judaism is the "religion, philosophy, and the way of life" of Jewish people. Judaism, originating in the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Tanakh) and explored in later texts such as the Talmud, is considered by Jews to be the expression of the covenant relationship God developed with the Children of Israel. According to traditional Rabbinic Judaism, God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.

The largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. A major source of difference between these groups is their approach to Jewish law. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, they are eternal and unalterable, and should be adhered to. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism promoting a more "traditional" interpretation of its requirements than Reform Judaism. Their typical position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.

Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people He created. Judaism thus begins with an ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one, and concerned with the actions of humankind.

According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation. Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people. These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism.

Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism. The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in XII century. According to Maimonides, any Jew to reject even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.

There are thirteen Principles of Jewish Faith by Maimonides:

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.

2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.

5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.

6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.

8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.

10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15).

11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.

12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.

13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.

Basic concepts and categories:

Mythology is the study of myths or a body of myths. The term "myth" is often used colloquially to refer to a false story; however, the academic use of the term generally does not pass judgment on its truth or falsity. In the study of folklore, a myth is a symbolic narrative explaining how the world and humankind came to be in their present form.

Ontological (from Greek: being (neuter participle of to be) and -logos: science, study, theory) i.e. the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped.

Cosmology (from Greek, kosmos, "universe"; and -logos, "study") is the study of the Universe in its totality

Cosmogony (from the Greek "cosmos, the world", and "to be born, to come about") is a theory concerning the coming into existence or origin of the universe, or about how reality came to be.

Eschatology (from Greek Eschatos meaning "last" and –logos meaning study, theory.) is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with events that are believed to be final in history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to the end of the world. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "concerned with the four last things: death, judgment, heaven, and hell" (phrase from Book of Revelation),

Karma (Sanskrit, kárman—"act, action, performance") in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect (i.e., the cycle called saṃsāra) originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh philosophies.,

Brahman - in the Hindu religion is the eternal, unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and everything beyond in this Universe.

Nirvana - is a central concept in Indian religions. In shamanic thought, it is the state of being free from suffering. In Hinduism philosophy, it is the union with the Supreme being. The word literally means "blowing out" — referring, in the Buddhist context, to the blowing out of the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion.

Atman (Ātman, sanskrit) is a philosophical term used within Hinduism, especially in the Vedanta school to identify the soul whether in global sense (world's soul) or in an individual sense. It is one's true self (hence generally translated into English as 'Self') beyond identification with the phenomenal reality of worldly existence.

Tao (fr.Chinese: dào meaning path or way, 'doctrine' or 'principle') is a concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy and East Asian religions; it is often used philosophically to signify the fundamental or true nature of the world.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Consider the peculiarities of early forms of religions.

2. Give your account for laws of origination and peculiarities of religious doctrine and worship in Ethnic religions.

3. Can you give general characteristic of ethnic religions?

4. What are the main features of religion in ancient Egypt?

5. Were there common backgrounds between religions of Ancient Greece and Rome?

6. Name the main deities of Hinduism?

7. What is the main difference between Taoism and Confucianism?

8. Is there any resemblance between the story of Osiris and the one about Jesus Christ?