Independent Clauses

1. "What we get from you and Anna just about covers the rates and genera! upkeep." — Jenny had been starting to say that that was right; she did not know a bit about housekeeping (A. Kingsley); 2. Betty had been chewing bubble-gum; now a ping-pong-ball-sized bubble issued from her tongue and lips (J. Updike); 3. He was thirty years old and he had been making his way in the world since the age of ten (A. Maltz).

Principal Clauses

1. Aileen had been bringing him news, from time to time, of just how her father was feeling towards him (Th. Dreiser); 2. Mrs Hammel

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and I were still in the kitchen. We had been talking about a wing which she wanted to have built onto the back of her house (J. Updike); 3. She had been thinking how little she knew him (A. Kingsley).

Included Clauses

Predicative clauses make about 56.5%,subject clauses 43.5%. Exam­ples:

1. That was why his mother had been looking for a room (Th. Dreiser); 2. He was exactly what Arnie had been striving to be in appearance and manner (M. Wilson); 3. Most of what he had been doing was the clerk's work (C. Forester).

Verbs used in the beforepast dynamic

546 verbs in the Beforepast Dynamic are used on the 50,000 pages of sources. The list below contains the 207 verbs used in the sources more than one time:

talk (55 times: 2.9%); think (53); sit (51); look (49); do (44); work (42); wait (41); watch (40); live (37); drink, read (35); try (34); stand (33); play (30); walk (24); listen (22); say (18); hope, make, take (17); grow (become: 7) (16); cry, fight, lie, run, sleep, tell (15); study (14); dream, expect, feel (13); have, write (12); eat (11); carry, come, count (on: 8), dance (10); hold, wonder (9); follow, hang, keep, ride (8); act, dread, get (become: 2), give, hear, prepare, smoke, stare, stay, use, wear (7); call, doze, earn, hide, hunt, intend, put, search, struggle, threaten, turn, weep (6); ail, build, discuss, fall, help, long, move, pull, seek, speak, spend, become, worry (5); admire, burn, buy, complain, cut, dig, happen, enjoy, meditate, pretend, pursue, push, rage, rain, receive, sink, stir, suffer, teach (4); accept, arrange, ask, attend, await, blow, brood, bully, chase, contemplate, crawl, deal, dine, draw, gather, gaze, indulge, laugh, lead, lean, lie (deceive), meet, observe, pass, pay, picture, pile, plan, pour, proceed, save, see, send, show, sing, specu­late, travel, wander, want (3); accumulate, agitate, assist, beat, bend, chat, chew, climb, conceive, console, cross, crush, dodge, dominate, drive, exaggerate, exhibit, fear, feed, find, flounder, form, fortify, gamble, gnaw, guard, hurry, imagine, increase, jerk, knock, learn, let, like, lunch, need, neglect, note, organize, plunge, point, prosper, puzzle, quarrel, reach, remember, ring, rise, roll, sell, sense, set, shoot, smoothe, sneak, steal, stop, stream, stroke, train, trifle, trouble, un­dress, unload, unpack, visit, wither, wrestle (2).

Among the verbs used in the sources only one time are to ache, bank (on), be, love, mean, rely (on).

As the list shows, the verbs think, hope, feel, wonder, dread, hear, intend, ail, long, admire, happen, suffer, see, want, imagine, like, and need belong to those most frequently used in the Beforepast Dynamic. The verbs ache, bank (on), be, love, mean, rely (on) in this tense are not less frequent than address, phone, swim, tramp, wash and many other which are used in the sources analysed only one time each.

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Examples:

To Think: She knew that all the things she had been thinking about them were nonsense (J. Lindsay); "I wasn't rushed into it. I'd been think­ing about marrying you for a long time" (D. Cusack).

To Hope: 1. "I thought perhaps you'd come to meet me," he obser­ved and she knew he had been hoping for it ardently (E. Delafield); 2. My feet were frozen clods. But I forgot about it when I saw the mist below me. I'd been hoping we'd solve the mystery this trip. And there, curling in ragged streamers a quarter mile below us, was the fog! (P. Ander­son); 3. One of the prisoners was assigned to help him. He had been ho­ping for this (A. Maltz).

To Expect: 1. "Well, what have you been doing with yourself to­day?" he inquired.— She had been expecting the question (D. Parker); 2. "Come in to tea this afternoon," he said.— "Thank you, sir," said Jeremy. That was what he had wanted and been rather expecting (H. Wal­pole); 3. At the end of the year he told her that he could no longer afford the luxury of a mistress. She had been expecting the news for some time (W. S. Maugham).

To Feel: 1. The love he had been feeling for her turned to raging scorn (A. Maltz); 2. Then he put his hand out and touched something hard. His hand felt then something wet and sticky and Noah realized that it was a dead man in the ditch in front of him, and he had been feel­ing the man's helmet, then the face, and that the man had been hit in the face (I. Shaw); 3. She thought it over. She knew exactly what had happened. She had let her emotion run away with her. She had been feeling, not acting (W. S. Maugham).

To Have: 1. The band had been having a rest. Now they started again (K- Mansfield); 2. The sinking, fluttering feeling she had been having was gone (J. Galsworthy); 3. And he went on with a thought he had been having (J. Salinger).

To Wonder: 1. I had been wondering how on earth the inspector had connected me with Sophie, but now he pushed forward a book (W. S. Maugham); 2. This must be the way Iveen talked to men, and men liked it. She had been wondering what they saw in Iveen (S. Gibbons); 3. He mailed the letter. Following that, because his mother had been anxious about him and wondering where he was, he soon received a letter (Th. Dreiser).

To Dread. To Fear: 1. Then he thought — suicide. He'd been dread­ing that without knowing it (S. Lewis); 2. It seemed to him that for weeks past he had been dreading some catastrophe (H. Walpole); 3. The problem in connection with him that she had been fearing this long while was upon her (Th. Dreiser).

To Hear: 1. Then he realized that he had been hearing the noise for what seemed a long time (I. Shaw); 2. It seemed to be a voice that he had been hearing all night (E. James); 3. "The point was, he said, he'd been hearing some stuff about you and Harry having a fight." (J. O'Hara).

To Intend. To Want. To Mean: 1. It appeared that she had not been intending to go to France at all (M. Arlen); 2. "Anything else to con-

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fess?" — "No." She had been intending to say: "I called him my darling love" (Th. Hardy); 3. The August day that had preceded the hot night had been a hard one for him to get through. All day he had been want­ing to be at home in his quiet apartment (Sh. Anderson); 4. Then he saw her face. Her eyes were full of soft concern for him. But he had been wanting more than soft concern (M. Wilson); 5. A little pair of scissors rested on her knee, for she had been meaning to cut out a certain recipe (J. Galsworthy).

To Ail. To Ache. To Long: 1. "His death was very sad, indeed. But he'd been ailing for a long time" (H. Walpole); 2. A completely differ­ent person from the Lanny who had left the house an hour ago. Then she had been aching with worry because he had been unhappy (P. Ab­rahams); 3. He did not stop, nor did he look twice at the face he had been longing for (G. Meredith); 4. He said he was glad I had come at last, he had been longing for my return (A. Munthe).

To Worry. To Admire: 1. All was well, after all; hehad been worrying unnecessarily (E. Hemingway); 2. I ran the boat to the dock. Ever since I'd seen the Chink and taken the money, I'd been worrying about the business (E. Hemingway); 3. "She declared impudently that they had been admiring the water-fall by moonlight" (M. Mitchell); 4. "Peter, don't you hear your father?" — I had been admiring a section of shadow under the walnut tree in my painting (J. Updike).

To Happen. To Suffer: 1. He looked forward to telling her his news, the great things that had been happening to him in the last three days (A. Hope); 2. Kit asked him what had been happening at the works (J. Lind­say); 3. For eighteen months she had been suffering from a growth of the stomach out of a chronic ulcer (A. Kingsley); 4. "Should I?" — "Yes. I wanted to know." ... Roger had been suffering severe kinds of pain during this exchange (A. Kingeley).

To See. To Imagine. To Like: 1. Jack apparently had not been see­ing more of her than of any one else at the camp (I. Stone); 2. And yet from the first, he realized she was not the type of a girl he had been imag­ining in his dreams that he would like to have (Th. Dreiser); 3. "Before going up there with her you hadn't been liking her as much as you might have: Wasn't that the way of it?" — "Not so much as I had at one time — no, sir" (Th. Dreiser).

To Bank, Count, Rely (on). To Be. To Love: 1. The trouble was that the three sons had already for a long time been banking upon it (E. James); 2. We knew that he had been counting on it (W. S. Maugham); 3. All along he had been relying on a "bonanza crop" (F. Norris); 4. Things had luckily not gone so far during the drive, but it had been a nqer thing. Anna had been being French again — unshockable, curious, as usual '(A. Kingsley); 5. Still it was no shock to find out, for example, that a girl had been loving you for a long time before you found it out (J. O'Hara).

Verbs in Beforepast Dynamic and Berofepast Static to represent verbal processes without emphasis on their limits (see p. 182):

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admire, avoid, breathe, bully, carry, cry, dance, develop, dine, do (proverb), doze, draw, drink, drive, eat, enjoy, expect, fear, feel, fight, follow, gnaw, go, grow (become), guide, hang, have, hear, hold, hope, insist, intend, itch, keep, labour, lie, like, listen, live, long, look, move, pace, peer, plan, play, plead, practice, press, pretend, progress, rain, read, rest, run, see, seek, sit, sleep, smoke, stand, stare, stay, study, suffer, surge, talk, think, threaten, torment, toss, travel, try, twist, use, wait, walk, wander, want, watch, wear, weep, weigh, wonder, work, worry.

Miscellaneous

Adverbials of Manner with the Beforepast Dynamic (10.6%): 1. He had been walking fast about the room, and he stopped (Ch. Bronte); 2. "She had a letter in her hand which told me how the others had been getting on" (Th. White); 3. "Will you do that?" — "Yes, that's very kind of you." — They had been walking slowly over to the corner of the playground (A. Kingsley).

The Beforepast Dynamic at the Beginning of a Story: They had been quarreling now for three quarters of an hour. Muted and inarticulate, the voices floated down the corridor (A. Huxley); All day we had been sitting in the piano box waiting for the rain to stop. Below us twenty feet away, the muddy Savanna River oozed past (E. Caldwell).

References to Processes not Controlled Consciously by the Subject (28.3%, of which 11.8% is used with inanimate subjects); 1. Ben opened his eyes. He had been dozing or fainting off, he didn't know which (J. Aldridge); 2. She had been sleeping badly (D. Cusack); 3. "It was the year after I had almost died of pneumonia — I'd been spitting blood ever since and having haemorrhages (Th. Wolfe); 4. The wind had been blowing hard for days (A. Bennett); 5. Jimmy was staring at the sky — the first to realize that for the last few minutes an aircraft had been circling high over the valley (A. Clark); 6. This evening he found it impossible to talk. The decision to build had been weighing on his mind all the week, and he had made up his mind to tell her (J. Galsworthy).

References to Facts of Objective Reality: 1. He was surprized at his weariness when he got into his room, forgetful of the fact that he had been on his foot and working without let up for fourteen hours (J. London); 2. "As a matter of fact, my boy," replied Cowperwood, "I had been work­ing too hard and found I needed a rest' (Th. Dreiser); 3. Though she had in fact been giving battle to that power in him for several months, she had held her own too well to perceive definitely the character of the spirit opposing it (G. Meredith).

Successive -ing Forms: 1. The sphinx had been lying waiting for me there for two thousands years (A. Munthe); 2. She rose from a chair in which she had been sitting reading a magazine (Th. Dreiser); 3. How long had she been sitting there, waiting? (P. Abrahams).

To Be Going + Infinitive (0.5%): 1. She took a sip from her glass, and the feeling that he had been going to laugh passed away (J. Gals­worthy); 2. Joseph had been going to marry her (E. James); 3. It was

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not much that Ruth wanted to say — merely that Norman had been going to take her to a lecture that night, but that he had a headache, and she had two tickets. (J. London).

THE BEFOREFUTURE DYNAMIC

The sources analysed (50,000 pages) contain the following three instances:

"Are you drunk, woman?" he roated at her.— "She'll have been tak­ing a little bit at the bottle to keep her strength up," tittered Grandma Brodie maliciously. "That's how she'll have been passing her time this morning" (A. Cronin); "I don't think the police are likely now to ask for an adjournment of the inquest tomorrow; but after Ronald's atti­tude, if they have by any remote chance got something up their sleeves for us, they'll have been keeping darker than ever" (A. Berkley).

Each of these three instances refers not to a future but past-time process (Mrs Brodie, for example, who referred to "this morning" was speaking at dinner time). The meaning of modality (may + Infinitve) in each case is obvious.

It is, therefore, probable that will have been taking, will have been passing, and will have been keeping are structures homonymous with the Beforefuture Dynamic.

LEXICAL CONTENT OF VERBS AND DYNAMIC TENSES

A careful study of the use of different tenses on more than 150,000 pages of text of fiction permits one to conclude that there are in con­temporary English only about a dozen verbs, such as contain, consist, equal, resemble, signify, matter, result, chance as well as modal verbs like can, may, must, ought that are never or practically never used in Dynamic forms. Dynamic forms with all other verbs are linguistic reality. Below is a list of 80 verbs commonly said in most grrmmar-books not to be used in be + -ing forms (light italics for "rather fre­quent", heavy italics for "regular uses"):

to ache, admire, advise, agree, aim, appear (-seem), apprehend, assum?, bank (on), be, believe, belong, bother, breathe, burst, care, comprehend, consider, count (on), dare, desire, disagree, doubt, dread, expect, fancy, fear, feel, figure, find, forget, forgive, guess, hap­pen, hate, have, hear, hope, hurt, imagine, intend, know, like, long, look, (fine, tired), love, mean (intend), mind, miss, need, notice, owe, possess, presume, promise, realize, recall, recognize, refer, re­gret, rely (on), remember, require, resent, see, seem, smell (have an odor), sound, suggest, suffer, suppose, think (to be in the process of thinking; in the sense "to be of an opinion"-rarely), trouble, trust, understand, want, wish, wonder, worry, yearn.

As experience shows, an analysis of additional sources will, undoubt­edly increase the number of such verbs and reduce the number of verbs that "cannot" be used in Dynamic forms. Indeed, it will be reasonable to say that, theoretically at least, only those verbs that have no Parti­ciple I cannot be employed in Dynamic Tenses.

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Grammar-books statements that certain verbs are not or practi­cally not used in Dynamic forms are, in most cases, gross exaggera­tions.¹ A few facts will suffice to illustrate this.

In Dead Man Pass by Peter Dawson (N. Y., 1973) the verb to hear is used in finite forms 21 times, out of which 15 are in Static and 6 in Dynamic Tenses. In other words, the Dynamic Tenses of the verb hear in this book are only 2.5 times less frequent than the Static. Besides, 7 times out of the 15 the Static forms are used in the book by Model I to represent terminative processes with their limits emphasized (Cf. "услышал"), which excludes the use of Dynamic Tenses, for instance:

First the old man, then Bill, heard him coming and glanced his way; Updike stood for all two minutes digesting what he had just heard. On the other hand, Dynamic forms of the verb hear are used in the book to represent processes as being in development, as in:

The lawyer was sucking a cold briar pipe and, typically, paid not so much attention to what he was hearing as to the manner of the man who was talking.

One more fact. A study of the lists of verbs used on 50,000 pages of fiction text in the Future Dynamic, Beforefuture Dynamic, and Before-past Dynamic (consecutive selection; seepages 131, 178, 194) tells us that to want is one of the most frequently used verbs in the Future Dynamic and the Beforepresent forms. In the former tense it is used more frequently than the verbs to wait, work, say, tell, take, carry and many others; in the latter it is more frequent than to read, drink, live, play, watch and many others which have never been said not to be used in Dynamic forms. There is, then, no reason whatever to label the verb to want as one that does not take the be + -ing forms. The same may be said about a lot of other verbs in these lists.

A study of the verbs that are practically never used in Dynamic Tenses (contain, consist, etc.) reveals the fact that they refer to s t a t і с relationships (contain, consist, equal, resemble, signify, matter) or repre­sent processes with their limits emphasized (chance, result). Examples:

Her purse contained the address slip (Th. Dreiser): There was the address slip in her purse. (Nothing is represented here as changing, having changed, or to be changed); The appartment consisted of two rooms, a kitchen, and a bathroom (S. Maugham): There were two rooms, a kitchen, and a bathroom in the apartment; Her ability equalled his own (M. Mitchell): was equal to his own; "What I believe doesn't mat­ter" (W. Stanton): is of no importance; The talk resulted again in a row (E. S. Gardner): The talk ended in a row.

Consider now the use of Static and Dynamic Tenses of the verb to see.

(A man who is going to be operated on his eyes): "To-morrow," he said, "I shall see no more" (H. Wells); He has watched many a morning break over that range. Now too he watched, but his weary eyes did notsee the pink of the gold (D. Cusack); Five-hundred fashionably dressed women turned their heads, so intent was Martin's gaze, to see what he was seeing (J. London).

Here the verb to see is used, respectively, in the following senses: "to have the power of sight," "to be able to perceive", "to watch, examine". The first two senses are references to relatively static processes and agree with the aspectual content of the Static forms, while the third refers to processes as developing and agrees with the aspectual content of the Dynamic forms.

In the verb to think the sense "to be of an opininon" is a reference to static processes, whereas the sense "to be in the process of. consider­ing things" points to processes in their development.

In polysemantic verbs, therefore, some senses may be references to static processes, others to dynamic processes.¹ If most senses are references to static processes, a verb is likely to be used more frequently in Static Tenses, with most dynamic-process senses the greater proba­bility will be for the dynamic forms.

However, the decisive factor for the choice of the tense (Static or Dynamic) in speech is the way a verbal process is represented. If, for instance, a verb is used in a static-process sense but represents the process as changing, having changed, or to be changed (Model III), Dynamic Tenses are regular. Thus, the verb to see in the sense "to be able to perceive" is a reference to static processes; in the following sen­tences, however, the ability to perceive is represented as either changing or having changed, which accounts for the use of the Dynamic Tenses:

(A young man, who had been knocked down by a, severe blow on the head, was slowly recovering. His girl-friend was watching him): His eyes! Was it light in them? Was it? They were seeing — surely they saw. And his lips made the tiniest movement (J. Galsworthy); (A dead-tired man trying to come out of his sleep): He began to fight himself out of sleep. For a long time he knew that his eyes were open, waiting for his vision to return. Then he was seeing again (W. Faulkner); (Brodie, whose eyesight was very good, pretended one morning that he was not able to see the man who had greeted him in the street): "I'm afraid I'm not seeing so well this morning" (A. Cronin).

Dynamic representation of static processes is especially character­istic of such verbs as to feel (fine, etc.), look (fine, etc.), be (silly, etc.), for example:

"I'm feeling better than I've been feeling in months" (Th. Dreiser); "Hello, Robert," she said. "You're looking fine. Had a big day?" (M. Maltz); "Now, Jenny", said Hartley, "you're being a fool" (F. Yerby): -» Jenny was not a fool, but at that moment she was behaving like one.

PART III

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Broadly speaking, the rules of the Sequence of Tenses explain tense patterns existing in a language.

In English, the use of tenses in subordinate clauses after an abso­lute Static or Dynamic Present, for instance, is conditioned basically by actual time relationships between the verbal processes (see also pages 56—57), for example:

1. "I don't know what you want" (W. S. Maugham); 2. "I know what I'm talking about" (Th. Wolfe); 3. "You know what they did this week" (D. Carter); 4. "You know what I was doing? I was sitting typing" (I. Shaw); 5. "I know what she'll endure" (W. S. Maugham); 6. "How does he know Michael won't be coming?" (J. Galsworthy); 7. "She knows I have been waiting a quarter of an hour myself" (D. Cusack); 8. "You don't know how you've helped me," he said (H. Walpole).

The absolute tenses in the subordinate clauses of these examples denote the speaker's mental present, past, and future; the beforepres­ent tenses indicate anteriority of verbal processes to the speaker's mental present.

The rest of the patterns, especially those in which verbal processes of the principal clause objectively belong to the past, are covered by the following rule:

If the verbal processes of a sentence belong completely to the past, and have nothing to do with the present or future whatever, only past,, beforepast, future-in-the-past, or before-future-in-the-past tenses are used in it; but if the process of a subordinate clause is relevant also at present or future time and its relevancy at the present or future is empha­sized, a present, beforepresent, or future tense of the verb is used to refer to it (with no emphasis on the relevancy of the process at the present or future, a past, beforepast, future-in-the-past, or beforefuture-in-the-past is normal).

The following examples illustrate the first half of this basic rule of the Sequence of Tenses:

1. My candle went out. Without it, the next moment, I knew that there was a figure on the stair (H. James); 2. I was mad. I didn't know what I was doing (M. Mitchell); 3. Madge mixed a good cocktail and as he drank the second of them Bart wondered why he had been such a fool as to let nearly a fortnight go by without ringing her up (D. Cu­sack); 4. He admitted that he had been raging in a silly way, but that

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nothing bad had happened (R. Graves); 5. It was only a little burn that had cut his flesh. But it was in the working part of his hand. He knew he would need his hand before this was over (E. Hemingway); 6. But he understood that at this banquet he would be addressing men who created statistics (D. Carter).

The tenses in the subordinate clauses of these examples are used in strict agreement with their temporal content: past tenses for mental past, beforepast tenses for anteriority to the past, future-in-the past tenses for future relative to the past. Such use of tenses in subordinate clauses is often referred to as N a t u r a 1 Sequence of Tenses.

In accordance with the second half of the basic rule, the sequence of tenses is frequently also natural, for example:

1. Kit managed to catch up with Jill as she was leaving the works.— "Hallo," she said. "I'm in a hurry." — "Let's go somewhere," he said.— "Not tonight," she said. "I told you I'm in a hurry" (J. Lindsay) (Jill's being in a hurry is relevant at the moment of speaking. She emphasizes the relevancy at the moment of speaking of her being in a hurry by using the Present Static. What Jill actually means to say is; "I'm in a hurry. I told you so just now"); 2. "I want the job. I told you I want it" (E. Hemingway); 3. "The dog doesn't go," Walt announced in a de­termined voice.— "What's that?" Miller demanded.— «I said the dog doesn't go, and that settles it" (J. London); 4. "Lawrence, what are you thinking about?" —"I was thinking that Dinny has probably had no lunch. Have you, Dinny?" (J. Galsworthy); 5. "They told me I've been cleared. I'm cleared for secrecy" (D. Carter); 6. "Sangallo wrote that my second shipload of marbles has been lying exposed in the Piazza San Pietro. I want to rescue them" (I. Stone); 7. "Don't hang up, Mort. I'm calling because I got a line on your dear friend tonight." — Cain stiffened. "I told you before about talking on the phone." — "Aw nuts. I just found out Kirby is going to speak at the membership meeting this week" (D. Carter); 8. You were saying that as Mr. Undershaft has not seen his children since they were babies, he will form his opinion of the way you have brought them up from their behaviour tonight ... (B. Shaw); 9. "I'll stay here." — «But Sam said for me to get a room in the hotel." — Her voice grew stubborn. "I said I'll stay here" (H. Rob-bins); The President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences said that the Soviet Union will have a big space observatory in permanent orbit round the earth in a matter of years (Mo. Star).

The absolute tenses in the subordinate clauses of these examples denote the speaker's mental present or future, the beforepresent tenses denote anteriority of verbal processes to the speaker's mental present.

However, past tenses in subordinate clauses in which verbal proces­ses are relevant at the moment of speaking are also common, for example: і 1. "I only steal from people I disapprove of." — "And why are you returning my pearls?" — "I told you I only stole from people I disapprov­ed of" (M. Arlen); 2. "Hello," said Carol.— Martin's pen jerked.— "Oh, I'm sorry," said Carol.— Martin blotted carefully and began to erase.— "Let me help," said the girl.— Martin stopped erasing and looked at her.— "I said I was sorry," Carol said defensively (N. Davis); 3. "I didn't

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know you painted." — "Only water-colours; I can't say I believe in my work" (J. Galsworthy); 4. "Did you know that Webster played the banjo?" — "No, does he?" (J. Osborne); 5. The butler came in again with a tray of cocktails. "I didn't know you drank cocktails, Elliott," I said.— "I don't," he answered, as he sipped the one he had taken (W. S. Maugham); 6. I'm frightened. At night I take one of the children into bed with me and hold him/her for hours. My eyelids won't close, it scalds when I shut them. I never knew what jealosy was. It's an end­lessly hungry thing. It really just consumes and churns and I can't focus on anything (J. Updike); 7. "Now and then we can sit back and hear ourselves think." — "Yeh, people say that sort of thing, but what is there really to think about? It sounds like the chair creaking, this sit­ting back and hearing yourself think; and what more is there to it, if you get down to the tacks." — "I never knew you were a philosopher" (W. S. Maugham); 8. "If they can do things like this there's no one who can save us but you, Toffy. I always knew you were a clever one. We'll obey you, Toffy" (L. Dunsany); 9. "If you're so charming and handsome that they won't give you a minute peace? Of course not. We understand. Tell us Mr. Standish, when did you first realize you were so beautiful?" (A. Kingsley).

Past tenses are common even if verbal processes in subordinate claus­es are what is usually known as "logical truths", for example:

1. She tried to explain, as she had done so many times before, what a map was (A. Huxley); 2. A British prime minister once remarked that the people were divided into two nations, the rich and the poor, and in effect that they had no knowledge of each other (A. Kingsley); 3. Some­body had said, or was saying, that we were descendents from monkeys, which was quite absurd, though it might be true enough (Th. Dreiser); 4. "Now, look," saisCarol, "i'm just trying to be neighborly. I came over here with the best intentions in the world. I was going to show you how the Grey's stove worked" (N. Davis); 5. Mr. F. T. Willey said an N. U. T. survey showed that one in seven primary schools lacked water sanitation (D. Worker); 6. "We start out of the bay together, and that Jack-in-office of a French Governor— I beg your pardon, sir. I was forgetting he was your father in law, but just the same he threatens to turn the guns on us" (C. Forester).

The use of tenses in the subordinate clause in cases illustrated by the last two sets of examples is often referred to as Attracted Sequence of. Tenses, the word "attracted" pointing to the influence of the tense of the principal clause upon that of the subordinate. As has been shown, such influence, however, is limited to the cases where no emphasis is being placed by the speaker upon the relevancy of the ver­bal process of the subordinate clause at the moment of speaking.

Therefore, the use of tenses in subordinate clauses in accordance with the first part of the basic rule of the sequence of tenses is с о m -p u 1 s о г у, that complying with its second part is optio­nal.

Attention should be also drawn to the use of tenses in the subordi­nate clause after a beforepresent tense in the principal.

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Processes denoted by the Beforepresent Static and Beforepresent Dynamic commonly (see, however, page 16) take place in periods of time located to the left from the moment of speaking, that is, in the past. The use of tenses in subordinate clauses after past-time verbal processes in the principal is established, however, by the basic rule of the sequence of tenses given and illustrated above. In accordance with this rule, the sequence of tenses in sentences with a beforepresent tense in the principal clause should be either natural or attracted. Ac­tual language facts fully comply with these requirements of the basic rule.

Beforepresent Tense + Future-in-the-Past: 1. "I'm ready to go any

time." — "Look here! Do you really want to go with me or are you just bluffing?" — "I'll go with you! I've told you I'd go with you!" (Th. Wolfe);

2. "Do you think you can do it?" — "I don't know until I look the part over. You know I'm afraid, now that I've said I would" (Th. Dreiser) (Just before this Carrie said to Drouet who had asked her to agree to play a part on the stage: "All right. I'll do it"); 3. "Well," she sighed, "you've owned that it probably would end in misery for us" (Th. Drei- ser); 4. "Luke's enemies have always said that he'd make one big mis- take" (C. P. Snow); 5. "I give you my word I've thought more than once the top of my head would fly off" (J. Conrad); 6. "Well, maybe he's going to brace up now and make a new start. He's promised that he'd try" (Th. Wolfe); 7. "Hallo! What a piece of luck! I've been hoping I should see you before you sailed" (E. Delafield) (Cf.: "Hallo! I was hoping I'd meet you" — O'Henry); 8. "Rotten weather, isn't it?" — "Well, I should say. I've just been sitting here thinking where I'd go tonight" (Th. Dreiser).

Beforepresent Tense + Beforepast Tense: 1. "I've told you hundreds of times that I had forgotten that girl, haven't I?" (O'Henry); 2. "But I've just said I'd made up my mind to stop after that" (A. Kingsley);

3. "Just this second I've realized that I'd been planning to go to Minnea- polis to see a girl" (S. Lewis); 4. Erik felt the sweating shame of a tyro who has just discovered that he had been strutting before the academi- cian (M. Wilson); 5. "That encourages me," said Kitty. I have been feel- ing that I had come at a very unfortunate moment" (W.S. Maugham); 6. "Why, Mrs Wheeler," said Mrs Vance, looking Carrie over in a glance," where have you been? Why haven't you been to see me? I've been won- dering what had become of you" (Th. Dreiser).

Beforepresent Tense + Past Tense: 1. "Heavens!" he exclaimed, Tising suddenly. "I've just remembered I had a date with her tonight" (G. Gordon); 2. "The only reason I have for looking unhappy is that since I was twelve I've known that my nose was a little too long" (W. S. Maugham); 3. "Am I really so bad as all that?" — "Yes, you are." — "I suppose you're right. I've always known I was a pretty poor specimen, really" (E. Delafield); 4. (Mrs Matson to Curtis who was playing with George): "And how many times have I told you that you were not to play with George? How many times, Curtis?" (W. S. Maugham); 5. "I've always said that eight was a perfect number" (W. S. Maugham); 6. "Do you know, since I have been back with people, I have felt I was going

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mad?" (Th. White); 7. "Mrs Vidler, I've wanted to come to see you for a long time. I've often wondered how you were getting along" (W. S. Maugham); 8. "Tell me, Gray—frankly—do you think I'm hardboiled?"— "No, far from it. Why, has anybody been saying you were" (W. S. Maugham); 9. "You have just been telling me how much you liked to be conquered" (Ch. Bronte); "I have been wondering for a long time past when that happy event was to take place" (H. Walpole).

The three sets of examples above illustrate the Attracted Sequence of Tenses in sentences with the Beforepresent Static or Dynamic in the head clause. If, however, the speaker emphasizes the relevancy of a verbal process of the subordinate clause at present time, for instance, a present tense is used in it, for example:

1. "I've just realized that I know very few people" (H. Smith); 2. "You haven't said you love me yet," she murmured (J. Lindsay); 3. "I've often told you, Michael, that life today can be very difficult for more than the working-class" (D. Carter); 4. "You've been complaining that I don't paint any more. Here is your opportunity" (I. Stone); 5. "For years you've been saying you're trapped out, Roy, but you always get through" (J. Aldridge); 6. "I've been telling myself I'm too far in to get out, and anyway there's nothing worth while to get out for" (J. Lindsay).

PART IV

EXERCISES

Graphic Representation of Time Relationships Between Verbal Processes

Recommended Signs:

 A single-act process represented in its limits.

~~ A single-act process of limited duration denoted by

a verb in any dynamic tense.

 A single-act process of limited duration denoted by a verb in any static tense

and represented without any emphasis on its limits.

…~~… A single-act process of practically unlimited duration denoted by a

…__... verb in a dynamic or static form, respec­tively.

… A multiple-act process.

~~ ~~ ~~

Note: Two or more verbal processes to be represented graphically should be supplied with a number (1, 2, 3, etc.). The numbers of processes in sentences of a given utterance and those in the corresponding diagram should be the same.

EXERCISE 1. Present Static and Present Dynamic;

1. I offered her a cigarette. "No, thank you," she said." I don't smoke" (J. Braine) (I'm not a smoker); 2. Marxism lives and grows (D. Worker); 3. "I go there every other night" (W. S. Maugham); 4. "Are you smoking now?" — "Just once in a while. I'm a moderate smoker" (J. Salinger); 5. The mechanical problems are getting more and more complex (Jones and Lawson); 6. "Things of that sort are happening every day. They are in the nature of things" (H. G. Wells); 7. "You're smiling," Alice said.— "I'm happy" (J. Braine); 8. He opened his eyes to find her look­ing at him. "Why do you stare at me?" he asked (A. Huxley); 9. The watch shows three minutes to ten (A. Cronin); 10. He does not look in as he passes the door (W. Faulkner); 11. As he enters his head is shaking (O'Casey); 12. "It's probably raining in London while we sit here" (A. King­sley).

EXERCISE 2. Past Static and Past Dynamic:

1. He closed the case again and handed it back to the doctor (J. Sal­inger); 2. She took off her hat and held it on her knee (K. Mansfield); 3. The brown squirrel flew at another, and they were chasing each other, and making little scolding chattering noises (D. H. Lawrence); 4. He was taking off his coat and hat and putting them in his locker (J. O'Hara); 5. He was tough, good-humoured and he smoked a great many cigarettes

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(Th. Wolfe); 6. We danced about four numbers, and then I turned off the radio and sat down next to her. I was out of breath. I was smoking so damn much, I had hardly any wind (J. Salinger); 7. She baked twice a week (E. Wharton); 8. That was happening every day (A. Kingsley); 9. Simon looked at Lionel. Lionel, as usual, talked to Victoria (E. Dela­field); 10. I called at the chemist's for some razor blades. The owner of the shop was talking politics with a customer (J. Braine); 11. While he waited for the boys, he walked up and down (E. Caldwell); 12. While he was following Anna downstairs, Jenny was going over the nice things Anna had said to her (A. Kingsley); 13. While she sat there she was still waiting patiently for Pyle (G. Greene); 14. "You look tired," she went on.— Walter blushed. "I slept badly," he mumbled (A. Huxley); 15. "You seem awfully sure about it." — "I was watching," I told him (E. Hemingway).

EXERCISE 3. Future Static and Future Dynamic:

1. "I shall, perhaps, write to your mother" (K. Mansfield); 2. "Good luck to you, and give her my love. On second thoughts, though, I shall be writing to her myself, so you needn't" (E. Delafield); 3. "I think I'll sleep alone tonight" (Th. Dreiser); 4. "You won't be using your bed tonight" (A. Saxton); 5. "You'll see me again often" (J. Braine); 6. "I'll be seeing you ever so often now" (A. Cronin); 7. "These chaps will talk. Whatever you do, you can't stop them talking" (C. P. Snow); 8. "We're losing our individuality. Soon they will be breeding us from test-tubes" (A. Kingsley); 9. "They will sit by and gloat at my agony until I am done to death" (Th. Wolfe); 10. "Remember I'll be looking till you find your sister" (Th. Dreiser); 11. "Close the window," he shouted. "I'll go outside and fix it" (G. Gordon); 12. "Look here, it isn't safe to lean like that. You'll be tumbling over and breaking your neck" (H. Walpole).

EXERCISE 4. Beforepresent Static and Beforepresent Dynamic:

Note: If the situation in the present is not expressed linguistically, it should be established from the context and represented graphically as a process.

1. "I know he hasn't had his car out. There aren't any tracks in the driveway" (J. O'Hara); 2. "Dinny, what have you been doing with Alan? He's looking so interesting" (J. Galsworthy); 3. He introduced me to his wife. "Don't you remember?" he said to her. "I've talked to you about him often" (W. S. Maugham); 4. "Why don't we have any money?" I asked" — "I've been asking myself that for fifty years" (J. Updike); 5. "Have you lived merely to live?" (J. London); 6. "You've been living in a world that's not what it seems" (J. Lindsay); 7. "Rivarez. He's a Brazilian, I think. At any rate, I know he has lived out there" (E. Voy-nich); 8. "I know she has been living with him there (in London), and is now living with him under your eyes (in New York) (Th. Dreiser); 9. Ever since that convoy stopped out there last night, he's just lain there and kept his glasses on them, smiling" (I. Shaw) (A soldier about his Lieuten­ant who is watching the enemy); 10. "I've just been sitting here and thinking" (M. Wilson); 11. It is a precept that I have followed scrupu-luosly: for every day I have got up and I have gone to bed (W. S.

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Maugham); 12. Mr. Pearce said today that many former Labour supporters have been coming up to him and congratulating him on his policy (D. Worker).

EXERCISE 5. Beforepast Static and Beforepast Dynamic

1. "Kitty." — She gave a bitter laugh. He had spoken her name in that melting, rich tone of his which came to him so naturally and which meant so little (W. S. Maugham); 2. Watching him straighten himself as he passed through the door, Dinny felt a sort of inspiration. The sink­ing, fluttering feeling she had been having was all gone (J. Galsworthy); 3. "Cyril," I cried, "prepare yourself! Here is a friend — a dear friend! 1" She had followed me with extended hands. He took them violently, and led her on (Ch. Dickens); 4. He turned to the girl, who had been following the conversation with breathless interest (H. Hill); 5. Leonard was talking of music; he and Mrs. Carlton had listened to a violin con­certo on her wireless the night before (D. Cusack); 6. Harringay went into his studio about ten o'clock to see what he could make of the head that he had been working at the day before (H. G. Wells); 7. The fol­lowing morning, when George had left for work, Mary called her elder boy (G. Gordon); 8. Arthur, instead of going to bed, looked out upon the moor. When he had sat an hour, he thought he heard a cracking (Ch. Dickens); 9. Mr. Marvel sat on the bench. When he had been sitting for the best part of an hour, an elderly mariner came out of the inn (H. G. Wells); 10. She forgot the restless birthday bitterness of the night — forgot how she had lain and thought, "Another year gone and nothing done yet" (R. Macaulay); 11. "I killed him. I missed to tell you in my tale.— "Arthur had been listening closely and turning over his own thoughts. Now he made a movement of impatience (Th. White); 12. One evening he wrote his second novel. He had got out of bed early and without eating any breakfast had begun to write (Sh. Anderson); 13. Two hours later Uncle Dap presented himself in the King's chamber. He had been undressing the knight and putting him to bed (Th. White).

EXERCISE 6. The Beforefuture Static:

1. "It was a terrible shock, Thomas, but in a week, you'll see, we'll have forgotten it" (G. Greene); 2. С a e s a r: I shall finish my life's work on my way back; and then I shall have lived long enough (B. Shaw); 3. "When the Americans renounce the claim they will have become re­alistic and joined the League of Nations" (J. Galsworthy).

Qualitative Character of Verbal Processes

EXERCISE 7. State whether the italicized Verbal Process Is Terminative Or Non-terminative. Represent the Process Graphically:

1. Suddenly her heart beat (began to beat) fast (J. Galsworthy) // A copper haze hung over the water, and the hot morning sun beat on it and made it vibrate blindingly (J. Salinger); 2. He dragged his saucer to him and blew his tea (D. H. Lawrence) // The elm-trees showed dark against a white sky. A light wind blew, carrying already a scent from

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the earth (J. Galsworthy); 3. The sneeze was coming, coming, came (G. Greene) // They found a spot where the sunlight came through a gap in the gorge, and rested there (G. Gordon); 4. I looked through the window. The two telephone wires diagonally cut the blank blue of the sky (J. Updike) //.He cut himself a slice of cake (G. Greene); 5. "I told them about you, and they're dying to have a look at you" (S. Lewis) // // "He's dying, you know. He'll never leave his bed again" (W. S. Maugham); 6. Jan's eyes filled with tears (D. Cusack) // Below him he could see the rectangular patch of park that filled Madison Square (M. Wil­son); 7. She hurried the boy up to bed (Ch. Yonge) // She was making mince pies. She hurried this morning (M. Freeman); 8. "You knew (rec­ognized) her at once?" (G. Meredith) // "I knew a lot of big men once" (J. Braine); 9. "We loved each other at once" (S. Gibbons) // She loved him no longer (W. S. Maugham); 10. She pushed the girl under the table and ignored her howls (J. Lindsay) // A couple of negroes were quarreling noisily; another one slowly pushed a whistling peanut stand through the thick dust of the roadway (V. Kershaw); 11.Then she wrapped him in an enormous towel and sat him at the table (I. Stone); He drew the curtains close and sat on the sill (J. Galsworthy) // The hour was close upon eleven. She sat in her room. Her elbow was on the table beside her chair (G. Meredith); 12. He closed his eyes and slept (J. Pud­ney) // That night he slept like a top (J. Galsworthy); 13. Sam threw the rope at the calf, but he missed it (W. S. Gray) // A row of electric bulbs threw a subbued light over the whole scene (F. Norris).

Aspectual Content of Verbal Forms

(Find out the Model —Model I, II, III, IV — of the Aspectual Opposition of the Verbal Forms)

EXERCISE 8. Present Static and Present Dynamic:

1. The watch shows three minutes to ten (A. Cronin); 2. "I believe he's better this morning, Doctor." — The doctor was a small man, brisk and neatly dressed. "Quieter, eh? He sleeps?" he inquired.— "Yes, that's it," she said. "He's sleeping" (A. Huxley); 3. I light the kitchen lamp (W. Faulkner); 4. "I hope I'm not interrupting" (U. Updike); 5. "Pete, I often think of what your Dad used to tell me about teaching. Now, I'm teaching myself, I see what he meant" (J. Updike) (A former pupil of Peter's father to Peter whom he met in the street); 6. "His mother works in the school cafeteria" (J. Updike); 7. "How do I look?" — "I think you look very well" (J. Galsworthy) //"Gosh, you're looking stunning" (A. Kingsley); 8. "О. K. Al, you win" (J. Updike) // "Well, how long is the war going to last, and who's winning?" (R. Graves); 9. "England still stands where it did" (A. Huxley) // The members of the delegation all favoured the speedy elimination of barriers which are standing in the way of big-scale trade with the Soviet Union (D. Wor­ker); 10. The lantern sits on a stump (W. Faulkner) // "Your barges are sitting here, idle." — "Busy tomorrow. No space" (I. Stone).

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EXERCISE 9. Past Static and Past Dynamic?

1. Little Phil lay in a stupor. He breathed now very quickly, now so slow that one began to wonder whether he was breathing at all (A. Hux­ley); 2. I crossed the street and kept on walking (J. Braine) // They were crossing the street (J. London); 3. When Ibsen invaded England, discussion had vanished from the stage; and women could not write plays. Within twenty years women were writing better plays than men (B. Shaw) // He wrote a literary column every Wednesday in the Daily Express (J. Joyce); 4. The scoreboard read: 39—4—11 (A. Kings-ley); 5. A stranger was walking up the hill tov/ards them. He walked rapidly and with an air of determination (A. Huxley); 6. Out of the wagon's side stuck the legs of cheap chairs (Sh. Anderson) // "I was making a run at speed to get clear of a couple of volcanic islands, and the fellow jumped overboard and swam for a rock that was sticking out of the sea (G. Jenkins) (The rock was periodically coming up from under and going down into the water); 7. "What did you say?" (W. Faulkner) // // It might be simpler, "Elinor began but checked herself after the first words.— "What were you saying?" — "Nothing" (A. Huxley); 8. As they came off the bridge we saw them. Stick bombs hung handle down from their belts (E. Hemingway) // I went into the living room. My jacket was hanging behind one door (J. Updike).

EXERCISE 10. Future Static and Future Dynamic:

1. "I'll get out of this in some way yet" (Th. Dreiser) //"I'm going down to Wimbledon, so I shall be getting out at Waterloo" (R. Graves);

2. "They won't work. We know. They'll be all alone in that cabin all winter" (J. London) // "And Sondra says that Stuart was hoping you would come up there and spend a lot of time this summer." — "Oh, did he?" replied Gilbert. "I'll be working this summer" (Th. Dreiser);

3. "These chaps will talk. Whatever you do, you can't stop them talking" (C. P. Snow); 4. "I'll count slowly. I won't cheat" (D. Parker) // "Yes. In a cell. But in my cell I'll be counting the days before my release. Here you'll be counting the days before... before the tide closes in on you for good" (D. Carter); 5. "Well, I'll go to the office now" (J. O'Hara) // "I'll be going now" (A. Kingsley) (Ср.: буду двигаться); 6. "It'll be quite safe, I assure you. Chilla Ryan will drive the car" (D. Cusack) // "A little more millenium and we shall soon be driving tandem again" (J. Gals­worthy).

EXERCISE 11. Beforepresent Static and Dynamic:

1. "Ever since mother came she has worked like a horse" (K- Mans­field) // "I have been working for over thirty years" (I. Stone); 2. J u -d і t h: He is a bad man. Essie: What has he done? (B. Shaw) // // "What have you been doing?" she asked.— Martin was still smiling (C. P. Snow); 3. "She nursed the man back to health when he was nearly a goner. Through her he's gone straight since" (G. Gordon) // "And I — you're right. Babbit. I've been going crooked, but now I'm going straight, and the first step will be tp get a job" (S. Lewis); 4. "Don't

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think any more about what I have said" (Th. Dreiser) // "You don't really believe half of what you've been saying" (A. Kingsley); 5. "I've watched you very carefully during the week I've been here" (W. S. Maugham) // "You are a remarkably stubborn child. I've been watching you all the week" (A. Cronin).

EXERCISE 12. Beforepast Static and Dynamic;

1. I turned and looked; on the back seat the leather gloves I had bought for Christmas lay curled palms up. And the gloves had fit (J. Up­dike); 2. Her teaching-practice report had said she was inclined to be too lenient (A. Kingsley); 3. Her room was untouched. The maid had evidently been in and pulled aside the curtains (J. Galsworthy) // Jenny had been pulling her dressing-gown round her and huddling as close as possible to the stove (A. Kingsley); 4. He looked out into the street. The long drizzle had begun. Pedestrians had turned up collars and trou­sers at the bottom (Th. Dreiser)//"Sergeant!" — The sergeant, who had been turning over pillows, came quickly to the Mayor (J. Salinger); 5. All the week that tune had rung in her head (E. Delafield) // All day the telephone had been ringing (J. Galsworthy); 6. She ordered three cows to be put in the old barn, the others in the house shed where the cooking stove had stood (M. Freeman) // What Peter finally did was to lock his door, draw away his bed quietly from the corner in which it had been standing and lie down facing the window (M. Brand); 7. And yet in spite of himself, he could not help resenting this extra strain, for it had only been a very short time that he had been earning so much (Th. Dreiser).

The Use of Tenses in Situations and Patterns

EXERCISE 13. Fill in the Blanks with the Present Static or Present Dynamics

1. She... a world of him (J. Updike) (think: Her opinion of him is high); 2. "The trouble is I've got school tomorrow morning." "Ah, this tomorrow morning, you... about it all the time" (A. Kingsley) (think: you are always in the process of thinking about it); 3. "Don't you know what I'm telling you: Don't you know?" — "I ... up," he said (D. Parker) (give: Jack is talking with his girl over the telephone. He cannot make out what she is saying. He has lost all hope to understand her); 4. "Of course the old boy can slip out of it. But he's getting old, perhaps he ... up the unequal struggle" (C. P. Snow) (give: he is in the process of losing hope, but hope is not yet all lost); 5. "This new dress ... you particu­larly, my dear child" (R. Macaulay) (suit: the dress is of proper size, fit, colour, etc.); 6. "He .. an engine on the local service — goes out at six, and doesn't get in till about midnight" (J. Galsworthy) (stcke: Jon is an engine-stoker. His occupation was different before and will be different after the strike); 7. "The natives have brains and they ... hard" (G. Gordon) (work: It is characteristic of them to work hard); 8. "I know I ... too hard, but this will soon be over" (Th. Dreiser) (work: It is characteristic of Cowperwood to work hard, but soon things will

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be different); 9. As a scientist the linguist... for pure knowledge (Ch. C. Fries) (search: the linguist, as long as the class of linguists exists, is in the process of searching constantly for knowledge); 10. "Aileen," he said, "how you ...! Why ... you ... that?" (Th. Dreiser) (talk, say: empha­sis on the way of talking and the reason for the words used); 11. "Bosh! What ... you... about?" (Th. Wolfe) (talk: What are you in the process of talking about?); 12. His shield ... beside it (B. Shaw) (lie: relative position of two things); 13. The skull ... on my writing-table (A. Munthe) (He: relative position of two things. Point out the transitory character of the position).

EXERCISE 14. Comment on the Use of the Present Static:

1. The major got up from the telephone. "The attack starts now" (E. Hemingway); 2. "I tell you what. I'll have a talk to him and see what he says" (D. Cusack); 3. "I do love you, Alice. I'll love you till the day I die" (J. Braine); 4. "It will please me if you go back" (J.Sal­inger); 5. "I shall believe it when I see it" (C. P. Snow); 4. "I was walk­ing through the hall ten minutes ago and his door bumps open and who the hell pops out but Mrs. Black" (J. Updike); 5. "You have a bright boy there. Vera tells me" (J. Updike); 6. "Julian and I are going to have a look at the papers." — "What do you say, Dot?" — "The papers. Ju­lian and I are going to have a look at them" (A. Kingsley); 7. "So I met Daisy there, with three guests, whose names I don't know to this day" (A. Arlen); 8. "It's two years since I saw him" (P. Wodehouse); 9. "I've your name in my list these two years" (A. Burton); 10. "I must get a job. Yes, I must. We get poorer and poorer" (A. Coppard) (A terminative process in its development); 11. Someone comes through the hall. It is Darl. He does not look in as he passes the door (W. Faulkner) (A termi­native process in its development).

EXERCISE 15. Comment on the Use of the Present Dynamic:

1. "We shall stay to the end — I'm being given a lift home" (E. De­lafield); 2. "Every time the wind blows and a floor creaks, we shall think the murderers are breaking in to kill us" (I. Shaw); 3. "When is he returning to Wotton?" (E. James); 4. "That man Truman was so dumb that his haberdashery store went bankrupt and the next minute he's running the United States of America" (J. Updike) (said in 1947); 5. "Tonight she'll play; I shall watch her while she is playing" (J. Gals­worthy); 6. Suddenly something soft hit the Senator on the back of his head and he gave a start. "What's that?" he cried.— "He's returning your Pyjamas" (W. S. Maugham); 7. "What are you doing all this time?" (W. S. Maugham); 8. "You are always sighing about something lately (M. Arlen); 9. I want to get better. I must get better. It is costing Bart too much (D. Cusack); 10. "I feel sorry for you; I know you're suffering" (J. Updike).

EXERCISE 16. Transhte into English Using the Present Static or Dynamic; •

1. «По нашим часам у т'Оь осталось 17 минут» (J. Updike) (Use the verb to say in the principal clause with the noun clock for its sub­ject); 2. «Я не занимаюсь теперь боксом» (R. Graves) (to box, these

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days. Implication: I did go in for it in the past); 3. Масло горит в лам­пах (Н. McKay) (Oil is a fuel for lamps); 4. Социализм изменяет мир (D. Worker) (Socialism is in the process of changing the world constant­ly); 5. Язык изменяется не только постепенно, но и закономерно (Е. Sapir) (It is characteristic of a language to change gradually and consistently); 6. Я начинаю понимать, что мне тогда повезло (R. Graves) (to begin, to realize, to be lucky: I am in the process of coming to a complete understanding of this); 7. «Начинаешь ли ты понимать?» (М. Wilson) (to begin, to see: Is everything clear to you now?); 8. «Они (жители Южной Африки) — твой народ. Но они существуют, не живут» (P. Abrahams) (Implied is: Time will pass and they will be independent and free); 9. Марксизм живет и развивается (D. Worker) (Marxism is a living and growing doctrine); 10. На первый взгляд Сперз слишком отстает — семь очков — но было бы ошибкой спи­сывать со счетов лондонскую команду, которая играет теперь зна­чительно лучше (D. Worker) (to play much better football, to be far behind, points, write off: "Spurs," the London team, are now able to play better football than they used to in the past); 11. «Я обращаюсь сегодня к тому, кого здесь нет» (D. Carter) (to spean: My words tonight are to one who is not here); 12. «Я говорю с тобою как мужчина с муж­чиной» (J. Braine) (to speak: I am in the process of speaking with you as man to man).

EXERCISE 17. Fill in the Blanks with the Past Static or Past Dynamic;

1. He ... the door and ... into the room (E. Hemingway) (to open, go: a series of complete events); 2. She ... the paper and ... the lid to the case that contained her toilet set (Th. Dreiser) (to remove, open: a series of processes represented as developing in time); 3. The dele­gations ... just, as we ... for home (M. Endicott) (to arrive, leave: simul­taneous non-complete processes); 4. He ... as she ... (J. Galsworthy) (to rise, enter: simultaneous complete processes); 5. He ... on his coat as she ... (Th. Wolfe) (to draw, enter: a process developing in time and a complete event); 6. He looked at the clock. It ... 7:25 (J. Updike) (to say: It was 7:25); 7. The door ... open; he entered (A. Huxley) (to stand: The door was open); 8. She made way back through the open door of the drawing-room. On the far side of it a french window ... ajar (A. Kings-ley) (to stand: The french window was ajar. Point out the transitory character of the process); 9. We danced about four numbers, and then I turned off the radio. I was out of breath. I ... so much that I had hardly any wind (J. Salinger) (tosmoke: I was a heavy smoker these days; I had smoked less before); 10. He ... not ...; he watched every penny like a miser (D. Cusack) (to smoke: He was no smoker); 11. Lord Edward and his brother ... the air in Gattenden Park. Lord Edward ... it walk­ing. His brother ... it in a bath chair drawn by a large grey donkey (A. Huxley) (to take: They were in the process of taking the air; their way of doing it); 12. I ... up now and she didn't even tell me to sit down (J. Salinger) (to stand: I was in the standing position); 13. That ... every day (A. Kingsley) (to happen: a process which is a series of non-complete actions).

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EXERCISE 18. Translate into English Using the Past Static or Dynamic!

1. Эрик как раз садился в машину (G. Chesterton) (to get into one's motor-car); 2. Барт вышел из машины (D. Cusack) (to get out of the car); 3. Он посмотрел на часы. Стрелки стояли на четырех минутах двенадцатого (G. Graham); 4. Джен пошла медленно за нею по длин­ному проходу между кроватями. Она была уверена, что все в палате замечают, как плохо она идет. Но она шла — именно это было важно (D. Cusack) (to walk, down the long aisle, be certain, notice, the import­ant thing: the way of walking and the process of walking in its develop­ment); 5. Она мыла тарелки, а Мария вытирала их и убирала (Е. He­mingway) (to wash the dishes, to dry, to put them away: a repeated series of verbal processes represented as developing in time); 6. Они жили в белом доме на углу (Th. White) (Their home was a white house on the corner); 7. Мои родители, которые жили постоянно в этом городе, после того как продали дом в Уимблтоне, не знали, как угодить мне (R. Graves) (permanently, having sold the house at Wimbleton, how to treat me; Point out the fact that the place of residence had been chang­ed); 8. Только одна из его теток все еще была жива (D. Carter) (to live); 9. Жирный зажаренный гусь лежал на одном конце стола (J. Joyce) (A goose was at one end of the table); 10. Револьвер и небольшая ко­робка с патронами лежали на столе (J. Conrad) (Point out the transi­tory character of the process); 11. Когда я увидел тебя там, я подумал, что вижу то, что видел так много раз: замечательного офицера (G. Jen­kins) (I was in the process of perceiving with my eyes what I had seen so many times); 12. «Ты помнишь, что я говорил тебе там?" (A. Berkley) (to say).

EXERCISE 19. Fill in the Blanks with the Future Static or Future Dynamic:

1. "Wait. I ... her" (K. Mansfield) (to ask: a process in its limits); 2. "I expect he ... you" (J. Galsworthy) (to ask: a process in its develop­ment); 3. "You ... your friend" (J. Galsworthy) (to miss: you'll be in the process of missing your friend); 4. "I'm going away for some days." — "I'm sorry. I ... you" (G. Gordon) (to miss: I'll be lonely without you); 5. Six of them ... for Scotland at Wembley next week (D. Worker) (to play: They will be on the list of the football players); 6. Two of the backs, Frank Myler and John Stopford ... in their first Test today (D. Worker) (to play: They will be in the process of playing in their first Test match);

7. "I ... you in half an hour" (E. Caldwell) (to meet: a process in its limits)

8. "Well now, it won't take you an instant to fix yourself up. You ... one or two old pals tonight, so you want to be in roaring form" (A. Kings-ley) (to meet: you will be in the process of seeing one or two pals tonight);

9. "You ... two days a week now" (F. Pohl) (to work: point out a change in the schedule of occupation; 10. "I'll do my utmost to make you happy, Mary. I ... hard for you" (A. Cronin) (to work: I'll be a hard-working man).

EXERCISE 20. Translate into English Using the Future Static or Dynamic:

1. «Я подожду немного, а потом пойду» (E. Hemingway); 2. «Ну, буду двигаться» (Th. Dreiser) (to go); 3. «Я поговорю с ним сегодня

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вечером и поспорим на пять фунтов, что завтра утром он будет думать о женитьбе меньше, чем о других вещах» (М. Arlen) (Point out a change in Harry's thoughts); 4. «Да, но будет ли каждый думать так'» (G. Gor­don) (Will this be everyone's opinion); 5. «Мы не будем драться» (D. Cu­sack) (There will be no fighting between us); 6. «Ты будешь сражаться с ними очень скоро" (Е. Hemingway) (to fight: You will soon be in the process of fighting the enemy who are about to attack); 7.«Я уезжаю в Лудингтон и я не буду зависеть ни от кого, кроме себя» (A. Sax­ton) (to depend on, Ludington: Just above Ann said, "I've always been depending on other people and they always let me down"); 8. «Она на­учит Джоу многому" (J. Braine); 9. «Как вам известно, вы будете вести лабораторные работы студентов первого курса» (М. Wilson) (to teach: Erik will regularly be in the process of teaching freshman physics lab); 10. «Я зайду за тобою в девять» (К. Mansfield) (to call for).

EXERCISE 21. Fill in the Blanks with Verbs in the Beforepresent or the Past Static:

1. "I'm worried about him," said Elinor.— Philip nodded. "Being seventy-three's no joke. He ... to look his age" (A. Huxley) (to begin); 2. "Now I must find you boys something to eat". She ... to bustle about the kitchen (S. Lewis) (to begin); 3. "I suppose you might as well meet my daughter. Come along, Sheila. This is Sheila". — "We remember?" Sheila said to Jenny (A. Kingsley) (to meet); 4. "I don't think you ... her, Albert" (D. Parker) (to meet) 5. I forget who it was that recommend­ed men for their soul's good to do each day two things they disliked: it was a wise man, and it is a precept that I ... scrupulously: for every day I ... and I ... to bed (W. S. Maugham) (to follow, get up, go: look­ing over a period of time begun in the past and stretching into the pres­ent); 6. "Sorry I was so long, Standish. The watch ... in my pocket all the while" (A. Kingsley) (to be: Graham had asked Standish to wait for him a bit: he would go and get his watch which he thought he had left on the bench. Soon Graham returned. Objectively, the watch had been in his pocket during his absence and was there when he returned. Implied is: "all the while I was away"); 7. "Does she have a job of some kind?" — "I believe she ... someone's secretary."—"Does that give her enough to live on, in London?" (C. P. Snow) (to be); 8. "I see from your expression that you ... of this infamous criminal" (M. Arlen) (to hear); 9. His wife, her face hard set, held out the telegram to him. "I ... you read it, thanks" (A. Bennett) (to hear); 10. Leaving Duncliff Hill on the left he proceeded without hesitation through the shade, as a man goes on, night or day, in a district over which he ... as a boy (Th. Hardy) (to play: no associations with any particular circumstances in the past); 11. "Simms, do you remember that I... you down to my cabin for my bag?" (E. Wallace) (to send).

EXERCISE 22. Fill in the Blanks with the Beforepresent Dynamic or the Past Dynamic:

1. "What about tomorrow?"—"Yes, that's what I ..."(J. Lindsay) (to think. Implication: when you asked the question); 2. "I'd like to

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meet Stane."— "Just what I ..." (Th. Dreiser) (to think. Implication: up to now); 3. "I ... myself what he is. Let's find out" (J. London) (to wonder. Implication: up to now); 4. "Don't look so serious," he said at last.— "I'm not serious," she yawned.— "You look it." — "I ... what we'd have for supper" (J. Lindsay) (to wonder. Implication: when you said "Don't look so serious"); 5. "Hallo, what's that?" he demanded in startled surprise.— Marian repeated her question. "Why don't I go to work?" — He broke into a laugh. "That Hermann of yours ... to you" (J. London) (to talk: a mere logical conclusion); 6. "They don't want any interference. I ... to Terrence Relihan and he says they won't stand for it all" (Th. Dreiser) (to talk: Julian Bode remembers his talk with the banker).

EXERCISE 23. Fill in the Blanks with the Beforepresent Dynamic or Static:

1. "Well, I don't understand one word that you ..." (R. Stevenson) (to say: you have been in the process of saying up to now); 2. "Don't think any more about me or anything I ... (Th. Dreiser) (to say: a pro­cess represented in its limits); 3. "I ... to Defence Counsel most care­fully" (A. Maltz) (to listen: I have been very attentive while listening to Defence Counsel); 4. "I ... not Hawkins. Are you making more witticisms?" (A. Saxton) (to listen: I have not been in the process of listening); 5. "You ... your utmost for him" (Ch. Yonge) (to do: limits not emphasized); 6. "I appreciate all that you ... and all that you are doing for her" (D. Cusack) (to do: limits emphasized); 7. "Do you know anything else about him?" — "Nothing more than I've told you already. They ... us separated" (A. Maltz) (to keep: We have been separated thanks to them); 8. "Goodness gracious! What's that? It's the clock striking! And here I ... you awake. Oh, madam, you ought to have stopped me" (K. Mansfield) (to keep: I have been in the process of telling you the story of my life and, thus, keeping you awake); 9. "What's the matter?" — "Oh, nothing. I ... not ... very well the last two or three nights" (W. S. Maugham) (to sleep: My sleep has been bad; it was good before); 10. "I ... not ... a wink all night" (Th. Dreiser) (to sleep: I haven't been asleep all night); 11. Over two hundred homes on this estate ... empty for months, waiting for conversion by owners (D. Worker) (to stand: The homes were not empty before; they will not be empty in some time); 12. A block of offices and shops will be built on a site where the theatre ... for eighty-nine years (D. Worker) (to stand: where the theatre has been for 89 years; no emphasis on the change of the status of the theatre).

EXERCISE 24. Comment on the Use of the Beforepresent Static and Dynamic

1. Every evening at six o'clock Reid arrived: with a short greeting and a long look to see how I was standing it, he took a chair beside me. When at last Reid has gone I draw up more closely to my table, fighting my terrible desire to sleep (A. Cronin); 2. The radiators purr. The side door slams; a member of the basketball team has entered with his gym bag and gone down to the locker room (J. Updike); 3. "Fleur does what she likes. You've always spoiled her" (J. Galsworthy) (a terminative

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process in its development); 4. I went out into the orchard. Sweet-briar, jasmine, pink, and rose have long been yielding their evening sacrifice of incense. I look round and listen. I see trees laden with ripen­ing fruit (Ch. Bronte); 5. "They'll know I've been fooling them and they'll be sure to get sore" (Th. Dreiser) (anteriority to future); 6. "When men have learned about you, they will leave you alone" (W. Guin); 7. "They will think that we have had a quarrel (Th. White) (anteriority to fu­ture).

EXERCISE 25. Translate into English Using the Beforepresent Static or the Past Static ¹

1. «Он знает», сказала она.— «Что он сказал?» (W. S. Maugham) (When you were talking to him); 2. «Почему ты мне не веришь?»— «Верить тебе? Верить немцу? О, что я сказал!» (A. Maltz) (up to now in general); 3. Она была застенчива. Она никогда не разговаривала, если к ней не обращались (Th. Wolfe); 4. «Вы можете вести машину?» — «Я никогда не пробовала» (Th. Dreiser); 5. «Очень благодарны вам. Сожалеем, но мы должны сейчас уйти».— «Но вы только что при­шли» (I. Shaw) (American and British English); 6. «Она подождет. Она ждет уже девять дней» (W. Faulkner); 7. «Нет, это поэма. Ты помнишь я однажды говорил тебе о ней» (F. Norris); 8. Он познакомил меня со своей женой. «Не помнишь? — сказал он ей.— Я часто говорил тебе о нем» (W. S. Maugham) (to talk to); 9. Дом из неотесанных бревен, между которыми уже давно не осталось пакли (W. Faulkner) (to fall, rough logs, from between which the chinking: no mental associations with the past); 10. «Вы когда-либо видели, как играют в бейсбол?» (J. Gals­worthy); 11. Я был возбужден, как человек, который нашел сокро­вище (Sh. Anderson); 12. «Я прочла книгу, которую вы оставили прош­лый раз».— «Что вы думаете о ней?» (К. Mansfield) (The process of reading is associated in the speaker's mind with certain circumstances in the past); 13. «Вы читали книгу?» Динни кивнула (J. Galsworthy); 14. Мы встречались раз шесть, а выходили вместе только раз» (A. Kings-ley) (retrospect; associations with the past); 15. Американский боксер Шомо до сих пор появлялся в Британии только раз — в 1959 году (D. Worker, 1965) (to appear, American boxer Shomo, only once before: retrospect + afterthought).

EXERCISE 26. Translate into English Using the Beforepresent Dynamic or the Beforepresent Static:

1. «Я только что сказал, что я социалист, и это правда» (J. Lind­say); 2. «Как вы поживаете, мистер Уильяме? Я только что говорила, что с таким удовольствием слушала ваше пение» (D. Parker) (I've enjoyed, ever so much); 3. «Ты думаешь, что я глупа».— «Я думал так, но теперь мое мнение изменилось» (J. Updike) (My opinion has been such); 4. «Я думал о тебе, Эйлин, и о том, что надо сделать в этом слу­чае»,— начал ее отец (Th. Dreiser) (Aileen: I have been in the process of thinking about you); 5. Пока что вы ведете себя хорошо» (Е. Hemingway) (to behave: So far your behaviour has been all right); 6. «Генри ведет себя сегодня вечером как настоящий осел» (G. Gordon) (to be­have: That night Henry was finding fault with Jane, asking queer quest­ions, doing queer things); 7. «Когда-то зоркие глаза моего отца, в по­следнее время видят совсем плохо» (S. Lewis) (My father's eagle eyes have not been too good lately, they were good before; to work); 8. «Они тру­дятся всю свою жизнь» (Th. Wolfe) (They have been hard workers all their life); 9. «Ральф, ты видел то, что видел я? Или я внезапно сошел с ума?» (М. Arlen) (to go crackers); 10. Эрик попросил ее пообе­дать с ним и, казалось, она была в восторге. «Я сходила с ума от оди­ночества»,— сказала она (М. Wilson) (to go crazy with loneliness).

EXERCISE 27. Fill in the Blanks with the Beforepast Static or the Past Static:

1. At that moment he noticed that a fly ... into his broad inkpot, and was trying feebly but desperately to clamber out again (K. Mans­field) (to fall); 2. I stood awhile watching the unloading of the Ameri­can bombers. The sun ... and they worked by the light of arc-lamps (G. Greene) (to go); 3. She hesitated a moment, then ... (Th. Dreiser) (to enter); 4. Bart rolled over on his back and ... stupidly at the ceiling (D. Cusack) (to stare); 5. "She's had a hard life, has Ma Parker." And it was true. At sixteen she ... Statford and ... up to London as kitchen-maid (K- Mansfield) (to leave, come); 6. "Go to sleep, pet; you'll forget all about it in the morning." But the child never ... (K. Mansfield) (to forget); 7. I looked around the room. It never ... so attractive (J. Braine) (to seem); 8. On the following afternoon she called on me and told me that the worst had happened. I ... her from a child, and she always confided her troubles to me (P. Wodehouse) (to know); 9. "And my name is Joan," she said.— "That'll be fine, Joan," I said. And from then on I always ... her Christian name (J. Braine) (to use); 10. He could not tell her what she already ... (G. Gordon) (to know); 11. His only thought was how soon he could get his discharge and go back to a job. He already ... Springvaleonce, but, had been rushed back with tubercular meningitis (D. Cusack) (to leave); 12. A week or so after I so unexpectedly ... into Larry, Suzanne and I one night were sitting in the restaurant (W. S. Maugham) (to run).

EXERCISE 28. Fill the Blanks with the Beforepast Dynamic or the Past Dynamic:

1. It was getting late. The crowd had thinned out and only a few tables were occupied. The people who ... there because they had noth­ing else to do had gone home (W. S. Maugham) (to sit); 2. She was told that her father was in his study and going to the door she opened it softly: he ... by the fire reading the last edition of the evening paper (W. S. Maugham) (to sit); 3. "You see, the concern he ... for was a fac­tory that made canned goods (R. Lardner) (to work: Jim was now job­less); 4. The prospects of the newly married couple were certainly not very brilliant. He, a stone-mason's apprentice, nineteen years of age,

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... for half wages till he should be out of his time (Th. Hardy) (to work); 5. His thoughts were twenty years away from this prison bus. His mind had gone back to a June morning when a boy of ten he ... down a dirt road. Behind him was the two room shack he had called home and the woman he had called mother (A. Maltz) (to walk); 6. One day long ago a lad ... down the road. In his pocket he had some gold coins, which he jingled as he went along (W. S. Gray) (to walk); 7. On the mantel­piece she lined up her photographs. It was the same collection as she had had for years at home, except that there was not one of Fred. When she ... she had almost slipped the studio portrait he had done specially for her (A. Kingsley) (to pack); 8. One evening when I ...down the gas in the lobby, Kate came in (A. Cronin) (to turn: a process belonging to the same period of time as came); 9. We ... in silence for some time when Ah-Yen spoke (S. Leacock) (to smoke).

EXERCISE 29. Fill in the Blanks with Beforepast Dynamic or the Beforepast Static:

1. She took a sip from her glass, and the feeling that he ... to laugh passed away (J. Galsworthy) (to go); 2. It was twelve years since he had seen his younger brother, and a memory of his appearance was a little dimmed. Long ago he ... his photographs that he had had since childhood (G. Gordon) (to destroy); 3. His pride, his conceit, ... him (H. Walpole) (to destroy: a process in its development); 4. Then he put on the shirt that ... on the doorstep (A. Saxton) (to lie: Point out the transitory character of the process); 5. He stared at the roof where the chair ... (A. Berkley) (to lie: where the chair had been); 6. Her eyes fell on the "Sketch". It was months old now. It was that paper which Wal­ter ... at all through that terrible evening (W. S. Maugham) (to stare: the paper at which his stare had been directed); 7.The policeman, who ... impassively at the floor, looked up (D. Carter) (to stare: the poli­ceman who had been in the process of staring at the floor); 8. We were cold, tired, sick. It ... for some time (R. Graves) (to rain: a process in development); 9. He grinned sourly as he looked around him. It ... for a week and his father was prolonging his death scene interminably (I. Shaw) (to rain: there had been rain falling); 10. The room had six Japanese prints which Clare evidently ... and some photographs of the family (J. Galsworthy) (to hang: a process in development); 11. Here the telephone clicked, for she ... up (Th. Dreiser) (to hang).

EXERCISE 30. Comment on the Use of the Past Static, Past Dynamic and the Beforepresent Dynamic:

1. His room smelled of soot and the fried potatoes she brought in for supper the night before (K- Mansfield) (Past Static to express anteri­ority to past); 2. Of art, architecture, poetry he knew nothing. He once confessed to Stane years before that he had no hand to such things (Th. Dreiser); 3. The other evening I found a photo of myself taken shortly after I came to live at Warley (J. Braine); 4. The war did something to

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Larry. He didn't come back the same person that he went (W. S. Maugham); 5. She stood as she had stood before, when she was facing him (W. S. Maugham); 6. She was happy She had come up alone; she hadn't let Neville come with her. She had said she was going to bean independ­ent old woman (R. Macaulay); 7. You know I lost my hardware shop. It was running downhill for three years (A. Maltz); 8. In the course of our walks she had told me nothing about herself which was not per­fectly simple and unsuggestive. Her mother had died when she was fourteen years old. While she was growing up she lived with her father and mother in Paris (Ch. Dickens); 9. "Lend me your scissors a second, will you?" — "No. I packed them already" (J. Salinger); 10. "Is Peter here?" — "Yes, he is. He was just telling me he's an atheistic Commu­nist" (J. Updike); 11. At last, when he could clap no more, he stood up suddenly and hurried across the room to Aunt Julia. "I was just tell­ing my mother," he said, "I never heard you sing so well, never" (J. Joyce); 12. "No," I said. "He has no friends. He just told me" (J. Updike); 13. The last to move was Skinner, who had been standing like a statue while all these things went on (A. Kingsley); 14. The taxi-driver, who had been fumbling energetically with the keys while the Inspector was departing, now desisted and looked sympathetically at the silent figure on the kerb (M. Arlen); 15. He spoke of his novels. He had once been pruning a tree when an idea for a story suddenly entered his head (R. Graves); 16. A new thought pricks him and he turns his head. "Dedman? Are you still here?"— Dedman has been holding his cards and fanning through them. He looks up (J. Updike).

EXERCISE 31. Translate into English Using the Beforepast Static or the Past Static:

1. Все комнаты были пусты. Можно было лишь догадаться, кто когда-то занимал их (G. Greene); 2. Кушетка собаки занимала один из углов, откуда она могла видеть себя в трех зеркалах (J. Galsworthy); 3. "Я верил этому тогда, сэр. Я все еще верю". Действительно, когда-то он верил этому; теперь же он этому не верил вовсе (A. Maltz); 4. Мой отец никогда не говорил этого прямо; но я уверена, что, когда моя мать умерла, он подозревал меня так же, как» подозревал ее" (Ch. Dickens) (never said so in plain words, was gone); 5. Шар, который казался таким большим на палубе, под кормой корабля казался совсем маленьким (Н. G. Wells) (to look, on deck, the stern: at the moment the globe for under-the-sea researches was on the water); 6. Я повел его к набереж­ной, и мы сидели в кафе, в котором я сидел с нею (W. S. Maugham) (to lead, down to thequay); 7. Он ждал, пока станет достаточно взрослым, чтобы пойти во флот. Он жадно читал объявления. Он знал всех военных на призывном пункте. Он прочел все брошюрки (Th. Wolfe) (until he should be old enough to join the navy; posters; the navy men at the enlistment office; pamphlets); 8. Когда он вернулся опять, ее письмо, в маленьком запечатанном конверте, лежало в почтовом ящике (Е. De­lafield) (a sealed envelope); 9. Когда он достиг вершины утеса, туман рассеялся и канал искрился, играя (I. Shaw) (to disperse, the cliff,

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sparkled playfully); 10. Страх все еще не покидал его. Он начался прошлой ночью, когда он проснулся и услышал, как ревет лев (Е. Hem­ingway); Cthe fear was still there, to start, to awake).

EXERCISE 32. Translate into English Using the Beforepast Dynamic or the Past Dynamic:

1. Она говорила теперь об этом с Филиппом — говорила об этом целый час (A. Huxley) (to talk, Philip, for the last hour);2. Наступил день, когда он признался Кэрри, что дела в этом месяце идут не так хорошо, как шли в предыдущем (Th. Dreiser) (to confess, to do as well... as); 3. Миссис Брэндон также была в своей спальне. Она сидела в вы­соком кресле, глядя перед собою. Она сидела там уже долго, совер­шенно не двигаясь (Н. Walpole) (staring in front of her, now for a long time, without making any movement at all); 4. На зов из двери этого здания вышел Гудвин. Он курил с консулом на задней веранде кон­сульства (O'Henry) (Out from the door of this building tumbled Good­win at the call; the back porch of the consulate); 5. Затем я поднял глаза. Он задумчиво курил (J. Conrad) (to look up, reflectively); 6. «Я поехал в Индию, потому что мне нужен был отдых. Я много работал и хотел собраться с мыслями» (W. S. Maugham) (I wanted a rest; wished to sort out my thoughts: In India Kit was not working); 7. Он работал от рассвета до темноты, пытаясь сохранить мастерскую (I. Stone) (from first light to dark; in an effort to keep the shop afloat); 8. Мужчина был полностью одет. Он спал во всей одежде, даже в ботинках (I. Shaw) (with all his clothes on, even his shoes: The Germans had taken him a prisoner when he had been asleep); 9. «Вы спали, когда я ушел» (Е. Hemingway).

EXERCISE 33. Translate into English Using the Beforepast Dynamic or the Beforepast Static:

1. Я обнаружил, что в Париже он рисовал точно так, так он ри­совал годами в Риме (W. S. Maugham); (to paint, for years: he had been in the process of painting things; as it had been his way of painting things in Rome); 2. Элен вышла замуж в июне. Она возвратилась в Альтамонт в мае (Th. Wolfe) (Altamont); 3. Я поспешил к нему, но он умер, не приходя даже в сознание. Он, по-видимому, возвращался из Фэрхэма в сумерках и упал в меловой карьер (А. С. Doyle) (he passed away without having ever recovered his consciousness; Fareham; the chalkpit); 4. По сути все было просто. Он читал книги Соммер-виля, собрал воедино обрывки слухов из прессы и заключил, что доктор Соммервиль согласился подписать все, что состряпала полиция (D. Carter) (in essence; to put together all the fragments of rumors in the press; his conclusion was; to concoct); 5. После обеда в тот вечер я начал неохотно читать его сценарий. Я не прочел и двух страниц, как вскочил, снова сел и стал лихорадочно читать дальше (J. Galsworthy) (languidly; skit, before I started up, feverishly, read on); 6. «Может быть вы заинтересуетесь этим.» Он бросил мне лист толстой писчей бумаги, который лежал развернутым на столе (А. С. Doyle) (you may

221

be interested; he threw over; note-paper; open: point out the transitive character of the state); 7. On вытащил полбутылки джина, которая тер­пеливо ждала с четверга (A. Kingsley) (point out the transitory charact­er of the state); 8. Затем он поспешил домой. Он знал, что Мэри будет ждать его. Она ждала целый день (G. Gordon) (She had been on the wait all day); 9. Через двадцать минут он стоял в дверях своего кот­теджа, глядя на освещенную луной комнату, которую он покинул семь часов тому назад. Вот роман, который он пытался читать; остатки его завтрака; пара коричневых ботинок, которые он собирался по­чистить (J. Galsworthy) (There was the novel; the remains of his lunch; to shine up); 10. Я даже не пытался читать. Достаточно было сидеть там, дышать, смотреть на реку и деревья, просто существовать. Я про­сидел там по крайней мере час. Подул холодный ветер, и я продрог (J. Braine) (I didn't bother to read; the wind turned cold; to begin to shiver; a process in development); 11. Полуулыбка, которая играла на его лице, исчезла (I. Shaw) (about his face; died; point out a change in his face); 12. Старые глаза бабушки наблюдали за тем, как летают мячи. В молодости бабушка не играла в теннис (R. Macaulay) (She had not been a tennis player in her youth).

EXERCISE 34. Comment on the Use of Tenses in Accordance with the Basic Rule of the Sequence of Tenses:

1. He said that Daily Worker was an indispensable paper for all trade unionists from the shop floor to the general secretary (D. Worker); 2. She found, as many another has found before and after her, that the best things were always the most expensive (H. Walpole); 3. "They both like you." — "I always thought they were a sensible pair" (A. Kingsley); 4. "What are you doing about here at this time of day? I thought you were on the night service this month" (F. Norris); 5. "You said just now you suspected what he's been after these years. What did you mean?" (W. S. Maugham); 6. "I was saying that all of us here have heard of your hus­band, but no one yet has seen him" (A. Saxton); 7. "Auntie, he — he told me that father has been married before" (G. Gordon); 8. I have remarked a little while back that I have invented nothing (W. S. Maugham); 9. "Why now, George and I were just saying how hard Paul's been working all day" (S. Lewis); 10. "Who is she?" he asked one day. I was told that she is beautiful" (Th. White); 11. "You said just now that you owe no man anything, and that you are rolling in money" (B. Shaw); 12. I de­cided to change the subject. "Did you know I'm playing Joshua (in the town amateur theatricals)?" (J. Braine); 13. "He said he will come" (J. Pud-ney); 14. Newscastle manager Joe Harvey yesterday said his club will be watching Bennett play for Rotherham in their Cup-tie against Lin­coln on Saturday (D. Worker); 15. "He asked me if I had seen you in town yet. I said Roy isn't my father and he isn't in town and you'll never catch him when he does come in" (J. Aldridge); 16. Jack loved honey, of course, and knew quite well what a bees' nest was; he knew that bees have stings (E. Seton-Thompson); 17. Chink slowly realized that there were long whips and big; that horses have teeth in their heels

222

(E. Seton-Thompson); 18. "I understand how it is, I think. I know what your ambitions are. I have always felt that I did, in part" (Th. Dreiser) 19. To each poet, to each professor she addressed the same question: "How long have you known you had this power?" (F. Norris); 20. "I love you! Ever since I met you I have known that you were the one girl in this vast world" (H. Walpole); 21. I have fought for what I believed in for a year now. If we win here we will win everywhere (E. Heming­way); 22. "Say that we'll open the letter together." — "Yes! Yes!" cried Nessie fretfully, "have I not told you that I would long ago" (A. Cro­nin); 23. "You've often said that you'd have to marry money" (E. Dela­field).

Андрей Константинович Корсаков

УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

(на английском языке)

Киев

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1 For the tense usually known as the Present Continuous some of the semantic patterns are: processes of various length, processes actual at the moment of speaking, processes not actual at the moment of speaking, non-repeated processes, repeated processes, simultaneous processes, sequent processes, processes referring to objec­tively past time, processes referring to objectively future time, terminative pro­cesses, non-terminative processes, processes whose subject is a living being, pro­cesses whose subject is an inanimate thing, processes consciously controlled by the subject, processes not controlled consciously by the subject, processes in emo­tionally coloured sentences, processes in emotionally neutral sentences, and so on, and so forth.

1 E. g.: И. П. И в а н о в а. Вид и время в современном английском языке. Изд. Ленинградского университета, 1961, с. 22—23.

1 ...если мы находим, что какое-нибудь тело принадлежит к какому-ни­будь подобному ряду, то его старое название становится препятствием для пони­мания и должно быть заменено названием, указывающим этот ряд. (Ф. Э н -г е л ь с. Диалектика природы. «К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс». Соч. Изд. 2-е, т. 20, М., 1961, с. 609).

2 В применении ко времени бесконечная в обе стороны линия или беско­нечный в обе стороны ряд единиц имеет известный образный смысл. (Ф. Э н -г е л ь с. Анти-Дюринг. «К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс». Соч. Изд. 2-е, т. 20, М., 1961, с. 49).

1

O. Jespersen. The Philosophy of Grammar. Ldn, 1934, p. 278.

2 A. Brusendorf. The Relative Aspect of the Verb in English. "Gram­matical Miscellany Offered to O. Jespersen on His 70th Birthday". Copenhagen, 1930, p. 229.

3 H. Ф. Иртеньева. Грамматика современного английского языка, М., 1956, с. 93.

4 В. Л. Филатов. Развитие значения и употребления глагольной формы Past Continuous в английском языке. Автореферат кандидатской дис­сертации. М., 1955, с. 13; В. Л. Ф и л а т о в. К вопросу о значении и упот­реблении Past Continuous в английском языке. «Исследования по прошедшим временам глагола в английском языке». М., МГПИ, 1960, с. 84—91.

5

A. Brusendorf. Op. cit., p. 229.

6

A. Brusendorf. Op. cit., p. 229.

7 В. Л. Ф и л a t о в. К вопросу о значении и употреблении Past Conti­nuous в английском языке, с. 90.

1 O. Jespersen. A Modern English Grammar. Vol. 4. Heidelberg, 1931, p. 179.

2 A. Brusendorf Op. cit., p. 228.

3 In accordance with the statistic counts data presented by Edith Raybould (1213 pages of printed text) the "classic frame" for the expanded past makes only 30% of its total use (94 out of 314). See: E. Raybould. Of Jane Austen's Use of English Verbal Forms. "Studies in English Language and Literature". Bd. 65. W. Braumueller. Wien — Stuttgart, p. 177.

1 For other examples of historical present tenses see p. 14.

1¹ The Beforefuture Static which has practically no corresponding dynamle form is treated of in the end of the section.

1The Beforefuture Dynamic is treated of on p. 198.

1

E. Koschmieder. Zeitbezug und Sprache.—"Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen". Lpzg-Berlin, 1929, S. 51.³ В. Trnka. On the Syntax of the English Verb from Caxton to Dryden. Prague, 1930, p. 41.

2

3 M. Deutschbein, Aspekt und Aktionsarten im Neuenglischen, Lpzg, 1931, S. 12, 18.

4 Д. Г. P а д ч e и к о. Видовое значение длительных форм глагола в совре­менном английском языке. Канд. дис, Черновцы, 1951, с. 190.

5 И. П. Иванова. Вид и время в современном английском языке. Л,, 1961, с. 77, 97.

6 Е, Koschmieder. Op. cit., p. 3.

1 W. Maurice. Present, Past, and Future Versus Perfect.—"Zeitschrift fur franzdsichen und englischen Unterricht". Bd. 26, Heft 7, Breslau, 1927, p. 524.

2 Г. H. Воронцова. Значение перфекта (Present Perfect) в современном английском языке. Докторская диссертация, кн. III, М., 1950—1952, с. 74.

3 Е. g. : W. Т waddell, The English Verb.— Brown University Press, Providence, 1960, p. 6.

4 Г. H. Воронцова. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М., I960, с. 203.

5 Ibidem, р. 202.

6 Г. Н. Воронцова. Докт. дис, кн. IV, с. 403.

7 J. Harris. Hermes or a Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar. Lnd, 1771, p. 199 ff.

1

Г. H. Воронцова. Докт. дис, кн. IV, с. 411.

2 Ibidem, p. 252.

1 Г. H. Воронцова. Докт. дис, кн. IV, с. 454.

2

И. П. Иванова. Вид и время, с. 115, 134, 141; 151.

3 Figures in brackets indicate the page in I. P. Ivanova's dissertation in which it is stated that the verb is terminative (И. П. Иванова. Видовременная система в современном английском языке. Докторская диссертация. Л., 1957).

1 И. П. Иванова. Вид и время, с. 113—114.

1

As in Chichewa, a language in Central Africa. (See, e.g.: E. H. Sturtev a n t. An Introduction to Linguistic Science. Yale University Press, New Ha­ven, 1960, p. 58.

2 E. g.: P. Roberts. Understanding Grammar. N. Y., 1954, p. 135. W. F. Twaddell. The English Verb. Providence — Rhode Island, 1960, p. 5.

1 К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс. Немецкая идеология. «К. Маркс и Ф. Эн­гельс». Соч. Изд. 2-е, т. 3. М., 1955, с. 448.

1 Е. g. : О. J е s р е г s е п. Essentials of English Grammar. Ldn, 1948, p. 23; G. S с h e u r w e і g h s. Present-day English Grammar. Bristol, 1959, p. 327; I. P. I v a n о v a, who states that "the main content of the Pluperfect is anteriority", that this meaning is also present in the Future Perfect. (И. П. И в a-h о в а. Вид и время, op. cit., pp. 133, 141).

2 In the system of Otto Jespersen, the Pluperfect and the Future Perfect denote, resp., Beforepast and Beforefuture time, whereas the Present Perfect expresses either results in the present or inclusiveness. (O. Jespersen. Es­sentials, op. cit., p. 243).

3 «Форма существенна. Сущность формирована. Так или иначе в зависи­мости от сущности...» (В. И. Ленин, соч. т. 29, с. 129).

4 Е. g.: Н. Е. Р а 1 m е г, A Grammar of Spoken English. Cambridge, 1930, p. 147; M. M. В г у a n t. A Functional Grammar. Boston, 1945, p.76; A. H. M a r-c k w а г d t. Introduction to the English Language. Oxford University Press. N. Y., 1946, p. 143; А, И. Смирницкий. Перфект и категория временной отнесенности. «ИЯ», № 2, М., 1955; Н. Ф. И р т е н ь е в а. Грамматика совре­менного английского языка (теоретический курс), М., 1956, с. 22; В. I l у і s h, The Structure of Modern English. M.— L., 1965, p. 99 ("an action expressed by a perfect form precedes some moment of time"); И. Б. Хлебникова. Систе­ма английского глагола и сослагательное наклонение. Автореф. докт. дис. М., 1965, с. 23.

5 А. И. Смирницкий. Морфология английского языка. М., 1959, с. 314.

1 Counted were all the finite verbal forms in the text of: A. Cronin The Citadel. M., 1963 , 422 p. (net); J. Lindsay. Betrayed Spring. M., 1955, 622 p. (net); the total volume of text being approximately 1,000 pages, the total number of finite forms (40,000) taken for 100%.

1 Ch. Dawes. Industrial Electricity. N. Y., 1939, 503 p. (net).

2 B. Sha w. Selected Works. M., 1958; English One-act Plays. M„ 1964. The total number of pages in the two books being 740

1 See also examples and explanations to them on pp. 25—26, 28—30.

1 See examples on p. 56.

1 For explanation and examples see pp. 59, 63—64.

1 For had used + infinitive, which is relatively rare, see p. 164.

1 In Russian the limits of a verbal process in the like clause are always emphasized. See also the use of the Past Dynamic in such cases.

1 See also the Past Dynamic section.

2 See also the Beforepresent section.

3 See the Beforepresent section.

1 In rhetoric questions with when the Beforepresent Static is frequent.

1 See also the examples on p. 26.

1 See also examples (a): 4—6 and an explanation on p. 59.

1 See Example 3 on p. 29.

2 See Example 3 on p. 100.

1 The verbs be, feel, and think which are regular in the Present Dynamic have not been counted.

2 The verb to see in the meanings to view as spectator and escort has also not been counted.

1 See Example 1 on p. 94.

1 See Example 5 on page 115.

2 For explanation and comments see pages 102—107.

1 See Example 2 on p. 114

1 See Example 7 on page 126.

2 See Example 11 on page 127.

3 See Example 4 above

1 See Example 8 on page 126.

2 See Example 3 on page 32.

3 For explanation and comments see pages 102—107.

4 The figures in brackets indicate the number of instances found in the sources.

1 See Example 3 on page 130.

1 For explanation and two more examples see pp. 59—60.

1 Note the place of the abverb used in the two meanings.

1 See Example 9 on p. 134.

1 The common tense with to this day is the Present Static (see pp. 63—64).

146

2 See Example 2 on p. 146.

147

1 See Example 2 on p. 117.

2 See Example 1 on p. 77.

148

1 Cf. p. 78—79.

2 Sentences with simultaneous processes are not considered here.

1 See pp.40-41

1 See Example 1 on p. 1G6.

2 See Example 2 on p. 166.

3 See Example 2 on p. 166.

167

1 94% of its uses are in dialogue.

1 See also Examples (b) — 1 : 3, p.47.

170

1 See Footnote on p. 174.

1 The adverb iust also combines with the Past Dynamic; see Ex. 1 on p. 170.

172

1 The adverb now with the Beforepresent Dynamic is more common in combi­nations with for a long time, and the like, e. g.: "He's been figuring on his movements for a long time now" (Th. Dreiser).

173

2 It is more probable that the adverb before modifies here the verb to mention.

174'

1 Gradually, grammarians are beginning to relize this fact. Thus, B. A. Ilyish points out that "the impossibility of these verbs appearing in this form is some­times exaggerated". This statement is illustrated by examples containing the verbs see, hope, like, fear, hear, look, be. (B. Ilyish. The Structure, op. cit., pp. 78—80)

199

1 А. К. Корсаков. Категория вида в современном английском языке. Докторская дис. Львов, 1967, с. 552; In 1972, R. Quirk et al divide the English verbs into 'dynamic' and 'stative' and point out that the latter are used only in the simple (that is, Static) aspect. The authors also explain that "although it is convenient to speak of 'dynamic' and'stative'verbs, it is important to note that it would be more accurate to speak of 'dynamic' and 'stative "uses of verbs" (R. Quirk et al, op. cit., pp. 149, 94—95).

200

1 If both forms are possible, make the necessary comments.