V. Find synonyms in the following sentences and write them out:

1. Let’s choose particular substances for our experiments. 2. It is necessary to select special techniques in dealing with this phenomenon. 3. The new express train runs at a speed of 160 km.p.h. 4. This is a fast train. 5. Solid helium is obtained by cooling and simultaneously subjecting it to high pressure. 6. One can get solid helium by cooling and at the same time by subjecting it to high pressure.

VI. Translate into Ukrainian using Complex Subject:

1. Холод вважається корисним явищем.

2. Відомо, що фізика низьких температур розглядає явища, які зустрічаються в області абсолютного нуля.

3. Ми знаємо, що надпровідність – це відсутність опору до електричного струму.

4. Відомо, що надпровідність була теоретичною наукою багато часу.

5. Імовірно, що нові надпровідні сплави з’являться у майбутньому.

6. Повідомляють, що теоретичні дослідження проводяться у розробці надпровідників, які мають свої властивості при кімнатній температурі або вищій за неї.

Text 14(b) Liquid Helium Surprises

Translate the text using a dictionary:

1. All solid bodies become brittle while liquids and gases become solid at temperatures close to absolute zero. There is only one gas – helium which fails to solidify on cooling alone. Solid helium is obtained by cooling and simultaneously subjecting it to high pressure.

2. At temperatures near to absolute zero, liquid helium reveals a surprising property – super fluidity. This phenomenon, discovered by Pyotr Kapitza, defies all conventional concepts of physics. For instance, if liquid helium is poured into a vessel it immediately climbs up the internal walls of the vessel and overflows. On the contrary, if an empty cup is partially submerged in liquid helium, the latter quickly fills it to the level of the surrounding liquid.

3. The range of investigations into low temperature has grown and is certain to grow with the progress of physics. Low temperatures are now used in certain studies in nuclear physics, radio-physics, electronics, optics, chemistry and biology. Particularly wide application, however, has been found for them in diverse research into the physics of solids.

Text 14(c) Cryogenic propellants

Give a short summary of the text:

At ordinary temperatures hydrogen and oxygen, and some other potential propellants, for example fluorine, are gases and not until they are in a gaseous state do they undergo chemical reaction in the rocket engine. But in the gaseous form they have such low densities that it would require extremely large tanks to store them in the rocket vehicle. The storage of propellants in the gaseous form is thus completely impractical. It is for this reason that the substances mentioned above are stored as liquids at very low temperatures; they are consequently referred to as “cryogenic propellants” (from “Kryos” – “ice cold” in Greek).

In the liquid form, the densities are much greater than in the gaseous state, and consequently the propellant tanks can be much smaller and less massive. This advantage is offset, however, by the low temperature required, so that liquid hydrogen, liquid fluorine, and liquid oxygen cannot be stored in the rocket tanks for long periods of time, nor can they be used without special precautions.

Such nonstorable, cryogenic propellants must be loaded into the tanks shortly before the rocket is launched.

Simultaneously compressing and cooling the gases to the required low temperature make the cryogenic liquids. They are then stored and transported, with moderate loss, in special vacuum-jacketed tanks. These containers are designed on the same principle as the familiar vacuum- bottles used to store hot or cold liquids in the home.

Here you can see the temperatures at which a number of cryogenic liquids, of possible use as propellants, liquefy at ordinary atmospheric pressure. These temperatures represent the conventional boiling points of the various liquids. By increasing the pressure in the container the boiling points can be raised to a certain extent, so that the liquid form can exist at somewhat higher temperatures. It can be seen, however, that the temperatures required to produce and store cryogenic propellants are extremely low by normal standards.

Boiling points of cryogenic propellants

Substance	Density (Grams/cu cm)	Boiling points
		º C	º F
Hydrogen Oxygen Fluorine	0.07 1.1 1.5	- 253 - 183 - 188	- 423 - 298 - 307
In order to avoid the problems associated with cryogenic propellants and to make rockets ready for launching at all times, storable liquid propellants have been developed.