Romer V. Evans (1996): 14th a., Gay Discrimination, political participation

• Colorado voters adopted A. 2 to their State Constitution precluding any judicial, legislative, or executive action designed to protect persons from discrimination based on their "homosexual, lesbian, or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships." Does A. 2 of Colorado's State Constitution, forbidding the extension of official protections to those who suffer discrimination due to their sexual orientation, violate the 14^th A's Equal Protection Clause?

• Majority: KENNEDY: Yes. The Court held that A 2 singled out homosexual and bisexual persons, imposing on them a broad disability by denying them the right to seek and receive specific legal protection from discrimination. Kennedy noted oftentimes a law will be sustained under the equal protection clause, even if it seems to disadvantage a specific group, so long as it can be shown to "advance a legitimate government interest." "If the constitutional conception of 'equal protection of the laws' means anything, it must at the very least mean that a bare desire to harm a politically unpopular group cannot constitute a legitimate governmental interest."

• Dissent: SCALIA, REHNQUIST, THOMAS: The constitutional amendment before us here is not the manifestation of a "`bare . . . desire to harm'" homosexuals, but is rather a modest attempt by seemingly tolerant Coloradans to preserve traditional sexual mores against the efforts of a politically powerful minority to revise those mores through use of the laws. That objective, and the means chosen to achieve it, are not only unimpeachable under any constitutional doctrine hitherto pronounced (hence the opinion's heavy reliance upon principles of righteousness rather than judicial holdings); they have been specifically approved by the Congress and by this Court.

Baehr V. Lewin (1993): Gay Marriage, Equal Rights

• The Hawaii Supreme Ct. (NOT the S. Ct.) remanded law prohibiting gay marriage violated equal rights A. under Hawaii const. (The prohibition did not violate right to privacy.) Marriage has benefits, and is also a vital right essential to orderly pursuit of happiness.

Constitutional Law – Spring 1999 1

Federalism - Vertical distribution of government power 1

Implied powers - McCulloch v. Maryland – Bank of the U.S. 2

Commerce clause 5

Spending power 19

Dormant commerce clause (DCC) – Protection against facial discrimination 21

10th Amendment - Implied limitations on congressional power - 25

Other Federalism premises 33

Separation of powers - Horizontal distribution of national power 43

Judicial review 44

Jurisdiction and standing 49

Political question doctrine 54

Executive authority - domestic 58

Executive privilege 60

Presidential immunity 63

Impeachment 65

Bicameralism and presentment 66

Administrative agencies and the separation of powers 69

Non delegation doctrine and “quasi-constitutional” statutes 76

Executive authority – foreign 80

Legislative authority - foreign 83

Other separation of powers premises 84

Individual rights 90

Equal protection 91

Privileges or immunities – 14^th Amendment 101

Incorporation 102

Contracts clause - Protecting economic liberties - Textual 104

Privacy, personhood, and family - Modern Substantive due process 115

Case Summaries 139

Constitutional Law – Spring 1999 1

Federalism - Vertical distribution of government power 1

A government of enumerated powers - Why does federalism matter? 1

Implied powers - McCulloch v. Maryland – Bank of the U.S. 2

Commerce clause 5

Three regulated categories under commerce clause 5

Channels 5

Instrumentalities 5

“Substantially affecting” commerce 5

Pre New Deal 6

Gibbons v. Ogden – New York steamboat monopoly 6

United States v. E.C. Knight - Manufacture vs. commerce – Sugar monopoly 7

Substantial economic effects and stream of commerce 7

The Shreveport Rate Cases – Substantial economic effects – Railroad rates 7

Stafford v. Wallace - Stream of commerce 8

Police power 8

Champion v. Ames - The Lottery Case 8

Hammer v. Dagenhart - Child labor 8

Summary of pre-New Deal law on commerce clause 9

The New Deal Crisis and the Rise of the Welfare State 9

Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 10

Carter v. Carter Coal Co. 11

Modern Trend 11

NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. - Expanded “substantial economic effect” 11

Wickard v. Filburn - The “cumulative effect” theory 12

United States v. Darby - police power regulations - Minimum wage 13

Civil rights cases and the commerce clause 14

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States – Local incident of interstate commerce 14

Katzenbach v. McClung – Ollie’s BBQ 14

Effect of Lopez 15

Judicial abdication during New Deal 15

United States v. Lopez – Latest word – Guns and schools do mix 16

Reconciling Lopez with New Deal 18

Current status of commerce clause 19

Does Lopez provide workable rule of law? 19

Spending power 19

United States v. Butler - Beyond enumerated powers 19

Steward Machine Co. v. Davis 21

South Dakota v. Dole - National drinking age 21

Pennhurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman 21

Dormant commerce clause (DCC) – Protection against facial discrimination 21

Gibbons v. Ogden – New York steamboat monopoly 22

Willson v. Black Bird Creek Marsh Co. 22

Cooley v. Board of Port Wardens (1851) – “Cooley test” – That which is by nature national 22

Modern DCC doctrine 22

City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey – DCC – No solid waste 22

West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy – Milk tax subsidizes in-state farmers 23

Bobbitt’s modalities and the DCC? 23

Market participant exception under commerce clause 25

Reeves, Inc. v. Stake 25

10th Amendment - Implied limitations on congressional power - 25

National League of Cities v. Usery - Traditional government functions test 25

Garcia v. San Antonio MTA - Overruled National League of Cities – Minimum wage 25

Use of state’s lawmaking mechanisms 27

New York v. United States - Waste disposal 27

Printz v. United States – Brady Bill – Don’t No commandeer state executive 29

Possible McCulloch theory underlying New York and Printz 31

U.S. Term Limits v. Thornton 31

Other Federalism premises 33

The treaty and war powers 33

Missouri v. Holland – Migratory birds 33

Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co. 33

The taxing power 33

Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. 33

The guarantee clause and the reconstruction amendments 34

Texas v. White 34

Validity of 13^th and 14^th Amendments 34

The power to enforce the reconstruction amendments 35

Katzenbach v. Morgan – Spanish speaking voters 35

City of Boerne v. Flores – RFRA Unconstitutional 35

Limitations on state regulation 38

Typology of Powers 38

Preemption 38

The Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV 39

United Building Council v. Camden - No market participant exception for PIC 39

Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward 39

Facially neutral statutes with significant effects on interstate commerce 40

Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland 40

Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Comm’n 41

Separation of powers - Horizontal distribution of national power 43

Distribution of national power - Why does separation of powers matter? 43

Formalism vs. functionalism 43

Judicial review 44

Marbury v. Madison – Supreme Court review of congressional statutes 44

Theoretical foundation of judicial review 46

Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee – Supreme Court review of state court decisions 47

Judicial exclusivity 48

Cooper v. Aaron - Federal judiciary is supreme – SCt binds states 48

Does judicial review imply judicial supremacy? 48

Departmentalism 48

Jurisdiction and standing 49

Ex Parte McCardle - Congressional control of appellate jurisdiction 49

United States v. Klein 50

Good confusion 50

Case or Controversy Requirement 50

Standing 50

Allen v. Wright - IRS tax-exempt status for segregated private school 51

Lujan v. Defenders of the Wildlife – Endangered Species Act 52

Raines v. Byrd - Line item veto 53

Perspective on cases 54

Political question doctrine 54

Baker v. Carr - Apportionment of the Tennessee Assembly 54

Luther v. Borden - Guaranty clause non-justiciable 56

Why is there a political question doctrine? 56

Davis v. Bandemer - Unconstitutional gerrymandering justiciable 56

Nixon v. United States - Impeachment non-justiciable 56

Coleman v. Miller - Congress gets to say whether USC has been amended 57

Timing and certiorari 57

Executive authority - domestic 58

Executive-Legislative conflicts 58

Youngstown Sheet & Tube v. Sawyer - The Steel Seizure Case 58

Dames & Moore v. Regan - Iran hostage settlement 59

Executive privilege 60

United States v. Nixon – Watergate tapes 60

Reviewability of executive privilege decisions 61

Scope of executive privilege 62

National security interests 62

United States v. AT&T 62

Legislative Investigations and Civil Proceedings 63

Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities v. Nixon 63

Dellums v. Powell 63

Lower level officials 63

Presidential immunity 63

Mississippi v. Johnson 63

Nixon v. Fitzgerald 63

Harlow v. Fitzgerald 64

Clinton v. Jones 64

Law and politics 64

Law versus politics 64

Nixon v. Administrator of General Services 64

Law as politics 65

Impeachment 65

Bicameralism and presentment 66

INS v. Chadha - One house veto provision stricken 66

General critique by Koppelman 67

Single-house actions approved by USC 68

Chadha in context - Legislative control of the bureaucracy 68

The reach of Chadha 68

Process Gas Consumers Group v. Consumers Energy Council of America 68

United States Senate v. FTC 68

A return to the text? 69

Future directions 69

Administrative agencies and the separation of powers 69

Meyers v. United States 70

The rise of independent agencies 70

Humphrey’s Executor v. United States - FTC member removal 70

Wiener v. United States - War Claims Commission removal 70

Buckley v. Valeo - Appointments Clause and FEC – Officer of the U.S. 71

Various assessments of Myers, Humphrey’s Executor, and Buckley. 71

Bowsher v. Synar - Good-bye Gramm-Rudman 72

Commitment and the budget 73

Appointments power - Congressional control over administrative officials 73

Chadha and Bowsher 73

Morrison and Bowsher 73

Koppelman on Morrison and Mistretta 74

Non-presidential appointments 74

Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue 74

Weiss v. United States 74

Edmond v. United States 74

Justice Scalia’s Bowsher and Mistretta dissents 74

Congressional control of administrative agencies after Chadha and Bowsher 75

Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority 75

Non delegation doctrine and “quasi-constitutional” statutes 76

Introduction 76

Non-delegation doctrine 76

Non-delegation and National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) 76

Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan 76

Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 76

Demise of non-delegation doctrine 77

Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Connally 77

Touby v. United States 77

Loving v. United States 77

Arguments in favor of reviving non-delegation doctrine 77

D. Schoenbrod 77

Industrial Union v. American Petroleum Institute – Rehnquist dissent 77

Ely (Democracy and Distrust) 78

Stewart – against non delegation doctrine 78

Lowi’s assessment of the “new” Constitution 78

Structural statutes 79

Executive authority – foreign 80

Control of foreign affairs 80

United States v. Curtiss-Wright Corp. – Foreign arms sales embargo 80

Text, history, and presidential power 80

Functionalism and the autonomy of constitutional interpretation 80

Allocation of war making authority 81

Approaches toward reconciling these provisions 81

Prize Cases - President’s power to use armed forces 82

Orlando v. Laird – Vietnam non-justiciable 82

Dellums v. Bush – The Persian Gulf War 82

UN “peacekeeping” or “peace enforcement” 82

Legislative authority - foreign 83

The War Powers Resolution 83

War Powers Resolution is unconstitutional 83

The War Powers Resolution is constitutional 83

Practice under the Resolution 83

The Constitution without courts – War Powers and Boland 84

Other separation of powers premises 84

Treaties 84

Executive Agreements 84

Dames & Moore v. Regan - Constitutional limits on scope of executive agreements 84

United States v. Belmont 84

Congressional-executive agreements 85

Impoundment 85

Line item vetoes 85

Unfunded mandates 86

New York v. United States – No unfunded mandates – 10^th Amendment 86

Unfunded Mandate Reform Act of 1995. 86

Contract with America 86

Constitutional amendment to balance the budget 86

Morrison v. Olson – Special prosecutor laws 87

Mistretta v. United States – U.S. Sentencing Commission 88

Final thoughts on separation of powers 89

Individual rights 90

Overview 90

Equal protection 91

Utility of equal protection analysis 91

Race and the Constitution 91

Slavery and the Constitution 91

State v. Post 91

Dred Scott v. Sanford 91

Reconstruction and retreat 92

Strauder v. West Virginia – Invalidated law barring blacks from juries 92

Plessy v. Ferguson – Separate but equal – Railroad cars 93

Equal protection methodology - strict scrutiny 94

Korematsu v. United States (Black 1944) – Japanese WWII interment 94

Overview of equal protection doctrine 96

The attack on Jim Crow 97

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (Brown I) – School desegregation 97

Bolling v. Sharpe - 14^th Amendment equal protection federal via 5^th Amendment 98

Brown II 99

Facially neutral laws that disadvantage minorities 100

Washington v. Davis 100

Privileges or immunities – 14^th Amendment 101

The Slaughter-House Cases – New Orleans slaughtering monopoly 101

Slaugheter-House remains good law 102

Incorporation 102

Barron v. Mayor & City Council of Baltimore 103

Murray v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. 103

Twining v. New Jersey 103

Palko v. Connecticut – Double jeopardy 103

Adamson v. California – Black dissent - Total incorporation 103

Duncan v. Louisiana 103

Contracts clause - Protecting economic liberties - Textual 104

Fletcher v. Peck – Corrupt land sale contract not voidable by State 104

Ogden v. Saunders – State bankruptcy law valid prospectively 105

Calder v. Bull – Ex post facto - Historical Modality – Criminal only 105

Home Building and Loan Assn. v. Blaisdell 106

Modern contracts clause law and AK analysis 106

Substantive due process - Protecting economic interests - “Redistribution” 107

Lochner v. New York – Time to make the donuts – No maximum hours for bakers 107

AK’s lecture on Lochner 108

Civil War makes Lochner look less crazy 109

Structural and ethical basis for Lochner holding 109

Dissent - Harlan 110

Dissent - Holmes 110

Forming an opinion of Lochner 110

Lochner Era - most significant judicial interventions in American history 111

Munn v. Illinois - Escape hatch from Lochner – “Public interest” 111

Muller v. Oregon – Another escape hatch – Women “special class” 111

Bailey v. Alabama – Personal service contracts enforced by jail time no more 112

Nebbia v. New York 113

West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish – The death of Lochner – Female minimum wage 113

United States v. Carolene Products Co. – Filled milk 113

Williamson v. Lee Optical - Full employment for ophthalmologists 114

Ferguson v. Skrupa 114

Summary of substantive due process - Economic rights 114

Privacy, personhood, and family - Modern Substantive due process 115

West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette - Overview 115

The right of privacy 115

Individual rights after the New Deal 115

Meyer v. Nebraska – Okay to teach foreign language to school children 116

Pierce v. Society of Sisters 116

Griswold v. Connecticut - Condommania 116

Eisenstadt v. Baird 119

Abortion 119

Roe v. Wade 119

Roe and Griswold 121

Planned Parenthood v. Casey – Abortion waiting period and other restrictions 121

AK’s approach to abortion question 127

Bowers v. Hardwick - Sodomy 128

Washington v. Glucksberg - Physician-assisted suicide 131

Sex and sexual orientation 134

Reed v. Reed 134

Frontiero v. Richardson – Classification based on sex inherently suspect 134

Craig v. Boren – Beer sales to 18 – 20 year-old women only, not men 134

United States v. Virginia – VMI gender integration 135

Other Candidates for heightened scrutiny 136

Romer v. Evans – Special rights for gays 136

Case Summaries 139

Strauder v. West Virginia (1880): 14^th Amendment 139

Peters v. Kiff (1972): 14^th Amendment 139

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): 13^th, 14^th Amendments 139

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): 14^th Amendment, Equal Protection 139

Bolling v. Sharpe (1954): 5^th Amendment, Equal Protection, Due Process 140

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Judicial Review, Interpret Constitution 140

Cooper v. Aaron (1958): Judicial Review, Interpret Constitution 140

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Ed. (1971): 14^th Amendment, Segregation 141

Freeman v. Pitts (1992): 14^th Amendment, School Desegregation 141

Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816): Supremacy Clause, Judicial Review 141

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Implied Power, 10^th Amendment 142

US Term Limits v. Thornton (1995): 10^th Amendment, Term Limits 142

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Commerce Clause, Federal v. States 143

US v. E.C. Knight (1895): Commerce, Anti-Trust 143

Champion v. Ames [lottery case] (1903): Commerce 144

Swift & Co. v. US (1905): Commerce, “Current of Commerce” 144

The Shreveport Rate Case (1914): Commerce, “close and substantial relation” 144

Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918): Commerce, 10^th Amendment 145

NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin (1937) Commerce Clause, New Deal legislation 145

US v. Darby (1941): Commerce Clause, Child Labor, Manufacturing 146

Heart of Atlanta Motel (1964): Commerce Clause, Civil Rights Act 1964 146

Katzenbach v. McClung (1964): Commerce Clause, Civil Rights Act 1964 146

US v. Lopez (1995): Commerce Clause, Guns in school zone 147

South Dakota v. Dole (1987): Commerce Clause, 21^st Amendment 148

Missouri v. Holland (1920): 10^th Amendment 148

Katzenbach v. Morgan (S.Car.) (1966): 14^th A., Due Process, Literacy to Vote 148

Boerne City v. Flores (1997): 1^st A. Free exercise v. 14^th A. Legislative authority 148

Jones v. Mayer Co. (1968): 13^th Amendment, Equal Housing 149

Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Auth. (1985) 10^th A., Federalism 150

New York v. United States (1992): 10^th Amendment, Supremacy Clause 150

Printz v. United States (1997): 10^th A., Commerce Clause, Original Intent 151

Cooley v. Board of Wardens (1852): Federalism, Concurrent Powers 152

City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey (1978): Dormant Commerce Clause 152

Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp. (1981): Safety v. Commerce 153

West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy (1994): Interstate Commerce 153

Corfield v. Coryell (1823): Privilege and Immunity Clause 153

United Bldg. v. Camden (1984) Privilege & Immunity v. Commerce Clause 154

Youngstown Co. v. Sawyer (1952): Separation of Powers, Emergency power 154

US v. Curtiss-Wright Corp. (1936) Separation of Power, External v. Internal 154

Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981): Implicit powers 154

Korematsu v. United States (1944): Emergency Executive Order 154

United States v. Nixon (1974): Executive Privilege 155

Clinton v. Jones (1997): Separation of Powers, Presidential Immunity 156

Mistretta v. United States (1989) “Non delegation” of Congressional Power 156

INS v. Chadha (1983): Legislative Veto 156

Clinton v. City of New York (1998): Separation of Powers, Line Item Veto 157

Bowsher v. Synar: (1986): Separation of Powers 157

Morrison v. Olson (1988): Separation of Powers, Independent Counsel 157

Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon (1982): Separation of powers, delegation 157

Commodity Futures T.C. v. Schor (1986): Separation of Power, delegation 158

Ex Parte McCardle (1869) Separation of Powers, Exceptions clause 158

Baker v. Carr (1962): Limits on Judicial Power, Political Questions 159

Nixon v. United States (1993): Limits, Political Question 159

Raines v. Byrd (1997): Limits, Standing 159

Allen v. Wright (1984): Limits, Standing 160

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife (1975): Limits, Standing 160

Missouri v. Jenkins (II) (1990): Limit, Scope of remedy 160

Missouri v Jenkins (III) (1995): Limits Jurisdiction 161

Fletcher v. Peck (1810): Economic Liberties, Property Rights 161

Ogden v. Saunders (1827): Economic Liberties, Contracts Clause 162

Calder v. Bull: (1798): Economic Liberties, Ex post facto 162

The Slaughter House Cases (1873): Economic Liberties, 13^th, 14^th A, Monopolies 163

Palko v. Connecticut (1937): Double Jeopardy, Due Process (14^th A.) 163

Adamson v. California (1947): 5^th A. not part of Due Process (14^th A.) 164

Skinner v. Oklahoma (1942): Due Process, Sterilization 164

Lochner v. New York (1905): Substantive Due Process, Freedom to Contract 165

Bailey v. Alabama (1910): 13^th A., Race Discrimination 165

West Coast Hotel v. Parrish (1937): 5^th, 14^th A., Freedom to Contract 166

Williamson v. Lee Optical (1955): 14^th A., Due Process, Judicial Power 166

Meyer v. Nebraska (1923): 14^th A., Due Process, Privacy 167

Poe v. Ullman (1961): 14^th A., Due Process, Individual Rights, “Ripeness” 167

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): 14^th, 1^st, 3^rd, 4^th, 5^th, 9^th A., Privacy 168

Roe v. Wade (1973): Privacy, Abortion (9^th, 14^th A.) 168

Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992): Privacy, Abortion 169

Bowers v. Hardwick (1986): Fundamental Rights, Sodomy, 8^th A. 170

Washington v. Glucksberg (1997): Privacy, Right to Die, 14^th A. 171

Railway Express Agency v. New York (1949): 14^th A., Rational Basis review 171

FCC v. Beach Communications (1993): 5^th, 14^th A, Rational Basis Review 172

Bradwell v. Illinois (1873): 14^th A., Gender Discrimination 172

Frontiero v. Richardson (1973): 5^th A., Gender Discrimination 173

Craig v. Boren (1976): 14^th A., Gender Discrimination 173

U.S. v. Virginia (1996): 14^th A., Gender Discrimination 173

Watkins v. U.S. Army (1989): 14^th A, Gay Discrimination, Status v. Conduct 175

Romer v. Evans (1996): 14^th A., Gay Discrimination, political participation 175

Baehr v. Lewin (1993): Gay Marriage, Equal Rights 175

Cases

Adamson v. California 130, 199

Adkins v. Children’s Hospital 139, 141

Allen v. Wright 63, 64, 196

Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Connally 82, 97

Baehr v. Lewin 209

Bailey v. Alabama 141, 161, 201

Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co 40

Baker v. Carr 67, 71, 143, 195

Barron v. Baltimore 128

Barron v. Mayor & City Council of Baltimore 130

Bolling v. Sharpe 123, 179

Bowers v. Hardwick 164, 177, 204

Bowsher v. Synar 89, 194

Bradwell v. Illinois 206

Breyer 37, 66, 79, 168, 171, 196

Brown II 124, 178

Brown v. Board of Education 59, 122, 123, 156, 160, 178, 197

Buckley v. Valeo 88

Carter v. Carter Coal Co 12

Champion v. Ames 9, 182

Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah 43

City of Boerne v. Flores 43, 46, 186

City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center 163

City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey 28, 189

Clinton v. City of New York 193

Clinton v. Jones 79, 192

Coleman v. Miller 65, 70

Commodity Futures T.C. v. Schor 194

Cooley v. Board of Port Wardens 27, 188

Cooper v. Aaron 56, 58, 75, 179

Coppage v. Kansas 140

Corfield v. Coryell 190

Craig v. Boren 120, 171, 207

Dames & Moore v. Regan 72, 106, 191

Davis v. Bandemer 69

Dellums v. Bush 103

Dellums v. Powell 77

Dept. of Agriculture v. Moreno 176

Dred Scott v. Sanford 58, 59, 115, 116

Duncan v. Louisiana 131

Edmond v. United States 93

Eisenstadt v. Baird 150

El Paso v. Simmons 134

Employment Division v. Smith 43

Ex Parte McCardle 60, 195

Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland 48, 114

FCC v. Beach Communications 205

Ferguson v. Skrupa 136, 144

Flast v. Cohen 63

Fletcher v. Peck 131, 132, 134, 197

Freeman v. Pitts 180, 197

Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue 93

Frontiero v. Richardson 171, 206

Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Auth 31, 187

Gibbons v. Ogden 7, 27, 182, 184

Griswold v. Connecticut 146, 147, 153, 203

Hammer v. Dagenhart 10, 11, 40, 183, 184

Harlow v. Fitzgerald 79

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 18, 184

Heckler v. Chaney 75

Holden v. Hardy 139

Home Building and Loan Assn. v. Blaisdell 133

Humphrey’s Executor v. United States 88

Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Comm’n 50, 114

Industrial Union v. American Petroleum Institute 97

INS v. Chadha 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 108, 193

Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co 43, 45

Jones v. Mayer 162, 187

Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp 189

Katzenbach v. McClung 23, 185

Katzenbach v. Morgan 19, 42, 44, 46, 128, 186

Korematsu v. United 118, 120, 192

Lassiter v. Northampton Election Board 42

Lochner v. New York 58, 59, 118, 128, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 142, 147, 200

Loving v. United States 97

Lujan v. Defenders of the Wildlife 64, 196

Marbury v. Madison 32, 44, 53, 54, 57, 74, 75, 179

Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee 57, 180

Mathews v. Lucas 120

McCulloch v. Maryland 32, 38, 39, 60, 181

Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward 48

Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority 94, 95

Meyer v. Nebraska 146, 152, 202

Meyers v. United States 87

Mills v. Habluetzel 120

Mississippi v. Johnson 78

Missouri v. Holland 39, 186

Missouri v. Jenkins 197

Mistretta v. United States 111, 193

Moore v. East Clevland 164

Morrison v. Olson 109, 194

Munn v. Illinois 140

Murray v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co 130

NAACP v. Alabama 148

National League of Cities v. Usery 24, 31, 32, 187

Nebbia v. New York 140, 142

New York v. United States 33, 35, 36, 108, 113, 188

Nixon v. Administrator of General Services 79

Nixon v. Fitzgerald 78, 79

Nixon v. United States 69, 80, 195

NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp 14, 184

Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon 194

Ogden v. Saunders 132, 198

Orlando v. Laird 103

Palko v. Connecticut 130, 164, 199

Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan 96

Pennhurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman 26

Perez v. Campbell 47

Perez v. U.S. 24

Peters v. Kiff 178

Pierce v. Society of Sisters 146, 152

Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc. 28

Planned Parenthood v. Casey 151, 153, 154, 204

Plessy v. Ferguson 160, 178

Poe v. Ullman 149, 202

Printz v. U.S. 33, 36, 188

Prize Cases 103

Process Gas Consumers Group v. Consumers Energy Council of America 85

Railway Express Agency v. New York 205

Raines v. Byrd 65, 196

Reed v. Reed 171

Reeves, Inc. v. Stake 31

Rice v. Santa Fe Elevator Corp 47

Roe v. Wade 59, 151, 153, 154, 160, 203, 204

Romer v. Evans 175, 208

Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 12, 96

Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities v. Nixon 77

Shaw v. Delta Air Lines 46

Sherbert v. Verner 43

Skinner v. Oklahoma 200

Slaughter-House Cases 127, 128, 137, 144, 199

South Dakota v. Dole 26, 185

Stafford v. Wallace 9, 12

Stanley v. Georgia 164, 166

State v. Post 114

Steward Machine Co. v. Davis 26

Strauder v. West Virginia 116, 117, 118, 178

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Ed. 180

Swift & Co. v. US 183

Texas v. White 41

Touby v. United States 97

Twining v. New Jersey 130

United Building & Constr. Trades Council v. Camden 47, 190

United States Senate v. FTC 85

United States Trust v. New Jersey 131

United States v. AT&T 77

United States v. Belmont 106

United States v. Butler 25, 29

United States v. Carolene Products Co 142, 144

United States v. Curtiss-Wright Corp 100, 191

United States v. E.C. Knight 8, 182

United States v. Klein 61

United States v. Lopez 20, 23, 26, 113, 185

United States v. Nixon 74, 192

United States v. Virginia 173, 207

US v. Darby 16, 184

Washington v. Davis 121, 125

Washington v. Glucksberg 167, 205

Watkins v. U.S. Army 208

Weiss v. United States 93

West Coast Hotel v. Parrish 15, 138, 142, 201

West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy 29, 190

West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette 145

Whitney v. Robertson 106

Wickard v. Filburn 5, 15, 18, 19, 72, 185

Wiener v. United States 88

Williamson v. Lee Optical 144, 202

Willson v. Black Bird Creek Marsh Co 27

Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co. 40

Youngstown Sheet & Tube v. Sawyer (The Steel Seizure Case) 71, 191

Statutes

13th Amendment 141, 161, 162, 163, 178, 187

14th Amendment 58, 117, 118, 120 - 123, 127 - 128, 130, 135 - 138, 146, 149 - 152, 163 - 165, 178, 180, 199, 203, 205

21st Amendment 185

2nd Amendment 37

5th Amendment 115, 123, 130, 179

8th A 164, 165, 205

Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 25

Art. II, §4 80

Article I, § 8 1, 2, 25, 29, 63, 64, 82

Article I, §10 106, 132

Article I, §3, Clause 6 69

Article II, §1 71

Article II, §2 105, 109

Article III, §3 71

Article III. §2 54, 55, 57, 59

Article IV 47, 68, 99, 127

Article IV, §2 127

Article V, §6 106

Bill of Rights 1, 2, 3, 115, 130, 145, 149, 150, 199, 200

Brady Bill 36

Child Labor Tax Law of 1919 40

Civil Rights Act of 1964 180

Ethics in Government Act 109

Gramm-Rudman Act 89, 92

Housing and Rent Act of 1947 40

Impoundment Control Act of 1974 107

Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985 34

National Industrial Recovery Act 96

Ninth Amendment 149

Religious Freedom Restoration Act 43, 187

Sixth Amendment 131

Stewart 28, 98, 150, 152, 203

Taft-Harley Act 71

Title II of 1964 Civil Rights Act 19

Unfunded Mandate Reform Act 108, 112

War Powers Resolution 104

Other Authorities

Ackerman 19, 42, 106, 145, 147

Blackmun 65, 93, 111, 151, 153, 159, 160, 165, 166, 180, 187, 203, 205

Bork 123, 124

Brennan 63, 67, 68, 70, 80, 131, 150, 161, 194, 203, 205, 206

Brown 117

Burger 50, 74, 75, 82, 89, 95, 153, 165, 180

Calabresi 24, 123

Cardozo 14, 26, 130, 134, 144, 199

Chase 132, 133, 136, 198, 199

Chermerinsky 62

Clark 18

Curtis 130

Day 10

Douglas 72, 144, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 191, 200

Easterbrook 58, 66

Ely 5, 48, 98, 102, 103, 105, 114, 121, 136, 143

Federalist 47(Madison) 52

Federalist 48 (Madison) 52

Flaherty 53

Frankfurter 68, 71, 128, 129, 131

Fuller 8

Golove 106

Grier 103

Harlan 8, 10, 117, 118, 135, 139, 149, 150, 151, 182

Holmes 10, 39, 136, 139, 141, 146, 200

Hughes 9, 12, 14, 133, 141, 142, 184

Iridell 133

Jackson 15, 16, 19, 28, 30, 58, 71, 72, 104, 119, 145, 191, 200

Jefferson Powell 35

Kennedy 65, 97, 154, 175, 176, 180, 188, 204, 209

Lessig 24

Lincoln 59

Locke 136, 138

Lowi 98

Marshall 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 16, 19, 27, 30, 39, 53, 54, 55, 57, 61, 62, 67, 74, 90, 128, 130, 131, 132, 179, 181, 182, 189, 198, 203, 205

Miller 127, 128, 137

Murphy 119

O’Connor 63, 151, 154, 168, 170, 180, 194, 204

Peckham 135, 138, 147

Powell 32, 35, 78, 164, 165, 194, 205

Rehnquist 65, 69, 72, 73, 83, 93, 97, 98, 104, 109, 153, 158, 159, 160, 161, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 185, 188, 189, 194, 205

Roberts 25, 142, 184

rpretat 58, 59, 73, 75, 103, 137

Sager 64, 126

Scalia 64, 93, 94, 110, 111, 161, 174, 175, 176, 177, 188, 193, 204

Schoenbrod 97

Souter 66, 70, 154, 168, 170, 171, 180, 188, 204

Stevens 65, 66, 79, 90, 94, 159, 166, 168, 170, 180, 188, 192, 205

Stone 16, 25, 28, 30, 48, 142, 184

Story 57, 180

Strong 116

Sutherland 12, 100, 138, 191, 202

Taft 9, 71, 87

Taney 115, 116

Thomas 22, 36, 38, 39, 53, 185, 188

Tribe 75, 76, 84, 106

Vinson 72

Warren 122, 123, 124, 178, 203

Wechsler-Choper 32

Werhan 53

White 69, 70, 79, 83, 85, 86, 91, 95, 125, 131, 150, 153, 164, 165, 194, 204

1

10th Amendment 6, 9, 12, 13, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 86

A

abortion 48, 91, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 168, 169

Abortion 119, 121, 126, 127, 131

Adams 44

Agricultural Adjustment Act 12

Appellate Jurisdiction 49

Appointments Clause 71

B

bakery 107

Bank of the United States 3

bicameralism and presentment 66

Bituminous Coal Conservation Act 11

Boland Amendments 84

C

Case or Controversy 50

Case or Controversy Requirement 49

Certiorari 57

Chadha 66, 67, 68, 69, 73, 75, 79, 83

Checks and Balances 43

Child Labor Case 8

class of acts 12

Commerce Clause 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 22, 25, 26, 38, 39, 40, 41, 106, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154

Concurrent powers 38

Congressional-Executive Agreements 85

contraceptives 116, 117, 119, 125

Contracts Clause 90, 104, 106, 162

Counter-majoritarian 48

Countermajoritarian difficulty 46

critique 6, 62, 66, 67, 87, 98, 99, 108, 110, 114, 130

Critique 3, 9, 28, 33, 45, 62, 75, 99, 117, 119, 124

cumulative effect 12

D

DCC 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 40

Departmentalism 48

desegregation order 48

Disproportionate impact 96

Doctrinal Modality 24

Doctrine of Implied Powers 2

Dormant Commerce Clause 21, 152, 153

Double Jeopardy 163

Due Process 103, 107, 114, 118, 120, 123, 126, 129, 131, 133, 140, 148, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 173

Due Process Clause 103, 107, 114, 118, 120, 123, 126, 131, 133, 166, 168, 171, 172, 173

E

Economic Rights 114

enumerated powers 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 19, 28, 31

Equal Housing 149

Equal Protection 55, 91, 93, 96, 100, 128, 137

Establishment Clause 52

Ethical Argument 105

Ethical Modality 24

ex post facto 38, 105

Ex post facto 105, 162

Exceptions clause 158

Exclusive federal powers 38

Exclusive state powers 38

Executive Authority 58, 80

Executive Privilege 60, 61, 62, 155

F

Federal Election Commission 71

Formalism 43

Formalistic Argument 67

Functionalism 8, 28, 43, 80

G

GATT 85

gay marriage 175

Gender Discrimination 172, 173

gerrymandering 56

Good confusion 50

Guarantee Clause 34

guaranty clause 55, 56

Guaranty Clause 55

Gun Free Schools 16

H

habeus corpus 49

Historical Modality 23

homosexual 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, 138, 170, 175

I

Impeachment 57, 65

Implicit powers 154

Impoundment 85

Incorporation Controversy 102

independent counsel 79, 87, 88

Independent Counsel 157

Interstate Commerce 7, 8, 144, 153

Iranian hostage 59

J

Judicial Exclusivity 48

judicial review 18, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 56, 57, 60, 61, 72, 84, 89, 96, 97, 100

Judicial review 56

Judicial Review 140, 141

JUDICIAL REVIEW 44

L

Legislative authority 83, 148

legislative veto 79

Legislative Veto 79, 156

liberalism 108

Liberalism 108, 109

liberty of contract 107, 110

line item veto 86

Line Item Veto 53

Lochner 98, 113, 115, 116, 165

lottery 8, 9, 144

Lottery Case 8, 9

M

Market Participant Exception 25

migratory birds 33

milk 23, 113

minimal scrutiny review 172

Minimal Scrutiny Test 96

Minimum wage 13

N

NAFTA 85

National Industrial Recovery Act 10

National Labor Relations Act 11

natural justice 105

Necessary and proper 2, 3

Necessary and proper\ 2

New Deal 9, 10, 11, 15, 18, 19, 29, 34, 48, 76, 77, 81, 106, 107, 114, 115, 116, 118

NJ landfills 22

NLRA 11

Non delegation 76, 156

non-justiciable 54, 55, 56, 57, 82

nondelegation doctrine 66, 71, 77, 78, 79, 86

Nondelegation doctrine 76, 78

Nondelegation Doctrine 76

O

Officer of U.S. 71

Ollie’s Barbecue 14

Originalist 105

Originalist/Historical Argument 105

OSHA 78

P

personal service contract 112

PIC 39, 101, 102, 108, 109

Planned Parenthood 116, 117, 119, 121

Political Constraints on SC 49

Political Question 159

Political Question Doctrine 54

Preemption 38

Presidential Immunity 156

Privileges and Immunities 39, 101

prudential argument 47

Prudential Modality 24, 51

Q

Quasi-suspect standard 96

R

Race Discrimination 165

Rational Basis review 171

Rational Basis Review 172

Reconstruction Amendments 34, 35

reserve powers 1

RFRA 36, 37

Right of Privacy 115

Ripeness 57, 167

S

separation of powers 1, 29, 43, 44, 52, 54, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 80, 87, 88, 89, 90

Separation of powers 3, 43, 44, 52, 69, 87, 157

Separation of Powers 43, 89, 90, 154, 156, 157, 158

Shared powers 38

Slaughter-House Cases 101

Slavery 7, 91, 128

sodomy 126, 128, 129, 130, 131

Sovereignty 3

Sovereignty argument 47

Spatial privacy 130

special prosecutor 87, 88

Special prosecutor 87

Spending Power 19

Standard of Review 120

Standing 50

STANDING 160

Stare decisis 18

Stare Decisis 122, 126

State powers, conditional on federal permission 38

Sterilization 164

Strict Scrutiny Test 96

Structural Modality 24

Substantive Due Process 107, 114, 115, 165

suicide 126, 131, 132, 133

Supremacy Clause 38, 141, 150, 160

T

tax breaks 51

Taxing Power 33

Taxpayer Standing 52

Textual Modality 23

Treaty and War Powers 33

Truman 58, 63, 77

U

U.S. Sentencing Commission 88

Unfunded Mandates 86

V

Validity of 13^th and 14^th Amendments 34

W

War Powers 79, 83, 84, 89

Watergate 60, 62, 83, 87

194