Indirect speech.

In reported speech we give the meaning of what said rather than the exact words.

E.g. Trevor says he’ tired.

In reporting speech we use such as announce, answer, explain, mention, promise, reply, say, suggest, tell, warn.

• We may have to make changes when we are reporting something another person has said, or when we report it in a different place or at a different time. Here are some typical changes.

Person: I → he/she

my → his/her

Place: here → there

Time: now → then

today → that day

yesterday → the day before, the previous day

tomorrow → the next/following day

this week → that week

last week → the week before, the previous week

an hour ago → an hour before/earlier

Exercise1. Put the following questions in indirect speech.

1 “Have you seen my brother recently? He asked me

2 “Could you wait in reception, please?” She asked me.

3 “Why didn’t you mention the problem before?” I asked them.

4 “Could I have two tickets , please?” I asked her.

5 “What are you thinking about?” she asked me.

6 “Will you staying long?” I asked him.

7 “What do you want me to do?” I asked her.

8 “Please don’t smoke in the house” she said to us.

Exercise2. Report the sentences. They were all spoken last week. Use the verbs in brackets.

1 A policeman to Christopher: Stop shouting. (tell)

……………………………………………………

2 Tessa: It was me. I ate all cake yesterday. (admit)

……………………………………………………

3 Adrian: I’m sorry I was rude. (apologize)

…………………………………………………….

4 Simon to Susan: Would you like to join me for lunch? (invite)

…………………………………………………………………..

5 Martin to Nancy: Did someone ring you an hour ago? (ask)

………………………………………………………………

6 peter: I really must leave. (insist)

…………………………………..

Unit 2

Theme: The subjunctive mood

Rules:

The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. In Modem English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms. "I wish I were ten years older," I said. (Braine) “Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше”, — сказал я. I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte) Я хотел бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.

THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES

In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:

(1) to express wish (пожелание): Long live the Kazakh Army! Да здравствует Армия Казахстана!

(2) to express an unreal wish: If only he were free! (Galsworthy) Если бы только он был свободен!

(3) in oaths and imprecations: Manners be hanged! . К черту всякие церемонии!

(4) in some expressions: Be it so! Пусть будет так!

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES

The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).

In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used in the subordinate clause; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood. In the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary should or would and the Indefinite Infinitive. Should is used with the first person singular and plural, would is used with the second and third persons singular and plural. The world would be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished. (Shaw) Человечество было бы здоровее, если бы все аптеки в Англии были уничтожены. I should kill myself to-day if I didn't believe that tyranny and injustice must end. (Galsworthy) Я бы сегодня же покончила с собой, если бы не верила, что тирании и несправедливости придет конец.

An unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be + to-Infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical Subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should for all the persons. Such sentences are often translated by means of 'Если бы случилось так...', 'Случилось так...'

If I were to offer my home..., my station..., my affections,., to any one among the young women engaged in my calling, they would probably be accepted. Even readily accepted. (Dickens)

Если бы случилось так, что я предложил бы свой дом, свое положение в обществе, свою любовь любой молодой женщине моей профессии, все это, вероятно, было бы принято. Даже охотно принято.

In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used in the subordinate clause;

in the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary should (with the first person) or would (with the second and third persons) and the Perfect Infinitive.

If I had consulted my own interests, I should never have come here. (Galsworthy)

Если бы я думал только о себе, я бы никогда сюда не пришел.

There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the condition refers to the past and the con­sequence refers to the present or future.

If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would be well now.

Если бы вы вчера приняли лекарство, теперь вы были бы здоровы.

Note. — Unreal conditions may also be expressed in the following ways:

(a) But for the rain, we should go down to the country.

Если бы не дождь, мы бы поехали за город.

(b) If it were not for your help, I should not be able to finish my work in time.

Если бы не ваша помощь, я не смог бы вовремя закончить работу.

In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbs might and could are often used;

I could have done very well if I had been without the Murdstones. (Dickens) Я мог бы очень хорошо учиться, если бы не Мердстоны.

Would, when used in the subordinate clause of a sentence of unreal condition, is also a modal verb forming with the infinitive a compound verbal modal predicate.

If you would come and see us..., mother would be as proud of your company as I should be. (Dickens) Если бы вы пожелали навестить нас..., моя матушка была бы так же польщена этим, как и я.

Note.— In conditional sentences of real condition naturally the Indicative and not the Subjunctive Mood is used. Such sentences can refer to the present future or past. But I can bear anything gladly if you are happy. (Eliot)

The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition are:

if, in case, provided, suppose, unless, and some others. If is the most common conjunction used in sentences of real and unrealcondition.

In case and provided are chiefly used in sentences of real condition.

In case I don't find her at home, I shall leave her a note.

В случае, если я не застану ее дома, я оставлю ей записку.

I shall go there provided you consent to accompany me. (Ch. Bronte)

Я пойду туда при условии, что вы согласитесь пойти со мной.

Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition.

Suppose he wrote to you, would you answer?

Предположим, он написал бы вы, вы бы ответили?

Unless is used in sentences of real and unreal condition.

I shall come in time unless I am detained at the Institute. Я приду вовремя, если меня не задержат в институте.

Isabel would not have engaged herself to Mr, Hardyman unless she had been fond of him. (Collins) Изабелла не согласилась бы выйти за мистера Хардимена, если бы не любила его.

Note. — Unless has a negative meaning; it corresponds to the Russian если не. There are cases, however, when the Russian если не cannot be rendered in English by unless; only if not is possible. Осторожно переходите улицу, если не хотите попасть под машину.

Cross the street carefully if you don't want to be run over. In this sentence unless would sound ironically (... разве что тебе захочется попасть под машину).

Adverbial clauses of condition containing the verbs had, were, could and should are often introduced without any conjunction. In these cases we find inversion.

Had the wanderer remained awake for another half an hour, a strange sight would have met his eyes. (Conan Doyle)

Если бы путешественник продолжал бодрствовать еще в течение получаса, его глазам представилось бы странное зрелище.

I should be myself were I once again among the heather in those hills. (E. Bronte)

Я стала бы такой, как прежде, если бы вновь очутилась на этих холмах, поросших вереском.

Should he come this way, I will speak to him. (Ch. Bronte)

Если ему случится быть здесь, я поговорю с ним.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences expressing what may be understood as an unreal consequence, the condition of which is not expressed as such.

I suppose you are a stranger in these parts, or you would have heard what happened last autumn. (Ch. Bronte) Наверно, вы приезжая, иначе вы бы знали о том, что случилось здесь осенью.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of purpose. When a clause of purpose is introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, we find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) if the principal clause refers to the present or future; if the principal clause refers to the past, only the form might is used.

As has already been stated, the mood auxiliary may (might) retains in this case a shade of modality.

Mr. Micawber impressed the names of streets, upon me that I might find my way back easily. (Dickens)

Мистер Микобер заставил меня запомнить названия улиц, чтобы я легко нашел дорогу обратно (чтобы я мог легко найти дорогу обратно).

Occasionally the mood auxiliary should is used.

I made shorthand notes of all that she said, however, so that there should be no possibility of a mistake, (Conan Doyle)

Я сделал стенографическую запись всего, что она говорила, чтобы исключить возможность ошибки,

If a clause of purpose is introduced by lest the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is generally used. Lest has a negative meaning (чтобы не).

She... looked steadily at her coffee lest she also should begin to cry, as Ann was doing already. (Eliot)

Она не поднимала глаз от чашки кофе, чтобы не заплакать, как уже плакала Анна.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions and connectives though, although, however, no matter, whatever, whoever, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) is generally used.

No matter how tired he may (might) be he will go to the concert.

Как бы он ни был утомлен, он пойдет на концерт.

Whatever obstacles may arise, we shall not give in.

Cold though it may be, we shall go to the skating-rink {Subjunctive Mood).

Как бы ни было холодно, мы пойдём на каток.

Cold as it is, we shall go to the skating-rink (Indicative Mood).

Как ни холодно, мы пойдем на каток.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning. Whenever you may (might) come, you are welcome. Когда бы вы ни пришли, мы вам всегда рады. Wherever she may (might) live, she will always find friends. Где бы она ни жила, она всегда найдет друзей.

Of course, I shall come for your marriage, whenever that may be fixed. (Trollope) Конечно, я приеду на вашу свадьбу, когда бы ее ни назначили.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of comparison (or manner) introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is more literary).

If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

She speaks (spoke) about him as if she knew him well.

Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто она его хорошо знает (знала).

If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.

She speaks (spoke) about him as if she had known him for years.

Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто знает (знала) его много лет.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:

(a) introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though, when we find the link verbs to be, to feel, to look, to seem, etc. in the principal clause.

If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.

I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon. (Galsworthy)

У меня такое чувство, как будто мы вернулись на семь лет назад, Джон.

... now I feel as if you had never been away. (Shaw)

Теперь у меня такое чувство, как будто вы и не уезжали.

(b) when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by an abstract noun such as wish, suggestion, aim, idea. etc. In this case the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should For all persons is used: Mary's wish was that... our mother should come and live with her. (A. Bronte) Мэри хотелось, чтобы наша мать переехала к ней жить. ...

The Subjunctive Mood is used in subject clauses after principal clause of the type It is necessary. It is important, etc. the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is used in all persons.

It was necessary that the child's history should be known to none. (Trollope)

Надо было, чтобы историю этого ребенка никто не узнал.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:

(a) When the predicate of the principal clause is expressed by the verb to wish. If the action expressed in the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

I wish I were a girl again. (E. Bronte)

Я хотела бы быть снова девочкой.

The above examples show that such sentences are often translated by means of как жаль, мне жаль. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary would (for all persons) is also used in object clauses after the verb to wish. This form is used only in sentences referring to the present or future; it is possible only if the subject of the principal clause is not the same as the subject of the object clause. It is chiefly used in sentences expressing request or annoyance.

I wish you would stay with me for a while. (Voynlch)

Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со мной.

With the verb to be this form is hardly ever used.

(b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses introduced by the conjunction lest if in the principal clause the predicate is Expressed by a verb denoting fear.

The mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.

She fears (feared) lest she should be blamed.

Она боится (боялась), как бы ее не осудили.

After verbs denoting fear object clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that, in which case the Indicative Mood is used often with the modal verb may (might).

She fears (feared) that she will (would) be blamed.

She fears (feared) that she may (might) be blamed.

(c) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses when we find verbs and word-groups denoting order, suggestion, advice, desire, etc. in the principal clause. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.

He orders (ordered)/He suggests (suggested)/He proposes (proposed)He demands (demanded) /He desires (desired)/ He insists (insisted) /He is anxious (was anxious) that everything should be ready by 5.

The Subjunctive Mood is used in attributive appositive clauses modifying the nouns wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.

She had been enormously flattered by his request that she should temporarily keep his house. (Bennett)

Она была чрезвычайно польщена его просьбой временно вести его хозяйство.

The Subjunctive Mood is also used in attributive clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause It is time. It is high time. In this case the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.

It is time we went home.Нам пора идти домой.

The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is also possible, though less common.

It was indeed high time that some one... should come to the aid of the old fanner and his adopted daughter. (Conan Doyle)

The emotional should occurs in different kinds of subordinate clauses; the principal clause in such cases contains:

(a) An adjective expressing astonishment, incredulity, regret, joy, such as strange, wonderful, unnatural impossible, fortunate, ufortunate, etc.

It is strange I should never have heard him even mention your name. (Austen)

Странно, что я никогда даже не слышала, чтобы он упоминал ваше имя.

(b) A noun with the same meaning: wonder, pity, shame, etc.

He is such a charming man that it is quite a pity he should be so grave and so dull. (Austen)

Он такой чудесный человек; как жаль, что он такой серьезный и скучный.

(с) The principal clause may be of the following type: I am tarty, glad, pleased, vexed, etc. I am sorry you should take such needless trouble. (Ch. Bronte) Мне очень жаль, что вы берёте на себя такие ненужные заботы.

The Subjunctive Mood with the emotional should may also oссur in such sentences as: Why should you and I talk about it? (Dickens) К чему нам с вами говорить об этом?

То think this should have come upon us in our old age! (Hardy) Подумать только, что на старости лет с нами случилось такое! 1 was still busy, when who should come in but Caddy! (Dickens) Я была еще занята, как вдруг вошла — кто бы вы думали? — Кэдди!

Exercise1. Translate from Russian into English:

1.Что бы вы сказали, если бы я пригласил его провести с нами субботу и воскресение? 2. Какое лекарство вы бы рекомендовали, если у мальчика заболит горло? 3. Если бы я умела хорошо играть на рояле, я бы сыграла для вас.4.Мальчик не дрожал бы, если бы ему не было холодно. Дайте ему чашку горячего чая. 5.Мы бы с удовольствием посидели еще часок, если не было так поздно.6.Если бы я знала, что ты позвала меня, чтобы упрекать, я бы не пришла.7.Если бы вы регулярно принимали лекарства, которые прописал врач, вы бы чувствовали себя теперь гораздо лучше.8.Если бы мы начали работать рано утром, мы бы уже все закончили.9. На вашем месте я бы с ними не спорила. То, что они говорят, правда.10. Знай мы это тогда, мы бы приняли меры.11.Если бы все было в порядке, он не выглядел бы таким озабоченным.12.Я бы давно это сделала, если бы знала, что это так важно.13.Если бы ты последовал моему совету, все было бы теперь в порядке.14.Если бы вы не отказались от его предложения, мы бы уехали все вместе, а не сидели бы здесь одни.15.Я уверен что вы могли бы сделать это без моей помощи, если бы постарались .Это было вовсе не трудно.16.Я бы, пожалуй осталась если бы мне разрешили.17.Вы бы сэкономили время, если бы поехали поездом а не пароходом.18. Если бы вы знали его так же хорошо, как я, вы бы ему тоже доверяли.19.Я бы давно ответила на твой вопрос, если бы могла.20. Если бы вы мне позвонили, я бы зашел вчера.

Unit 3

Theme: The Passive Voice

Rules:

The Passive Voice in English is found with different types of verbs (mostly transitive):

1 There are a number of verbs in English which take two objects – a direct and an indirect object. These verbs may have two passive constructions. The most frequently used verbs of this kind are: to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to pay, to live, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise and a few others.

E.g.: A very good job was offered to me.

2 There are a great number of verbs in English that require a prepositional object. These verbs may also be used in the Passive. The preposition retains its place after the verb. This construction may be called the Prepositional Passive.

E.g.: You are being made a fool of.

3 The Prepositional Passive is not used with verbs which take two objects, direct and prepositional. Here belong such verbs as to explain, to point out, to announce, to dictate, to describe, to mention, to repeat, to suggest, to propose.

E.g.: The mistake was pointed out to us.

NB: the active forms of the verbs sell, wash, peel, crease, wear, bake, burn are used through the meanings are passive:

E.g.: Detective stories sell well. Dry leaves burn well.

NB: There is a certain group of transitive verbs which are not used in the passive voice. They are semantic reasons for this, as these verbs don’t denote actions or processes, but states.

E.g.: John resembles his father. (John looks like his father)

Exercise1. Change the sentences from active to passive:

1. The teacher explains the new rule. 2. The teacher is explaining the new rule. 3. The teacher has explained the new rule. 4. The teacher explained the new rule. 5. The teacher was explaining the new rule. 6. The teacher had explained the new rule. 7. The teacher is going to explain the new rule. 8. The teacher will explain the new rule. 9. The teacher can explain the new rule. 10. The teacher should explain the new rule. 11. The teacher ought to explain the new rule. 12. The teacher must explain the new rule. 13. The teacher has to explain the new rule. 14. The teacher may explain the new rule. 15. The teacher might explain the new rule.

Exercise2. Change the sentences from active to passive if possible

1. Doctors use this medicine widely. 2. They deliver milk before 8 a.m. 3. When I came to the service station, they were still repairing my car. 4. Jack walked to school yesterday. 5. Don't worry, our people will meet the group at the airport. 6. This man is installing a new xerox in the office. 7. We stayed in a three-star hotel. 8. The police arrested the wrong man mainly because they confused the names which the witness had given them. 9. They threw him into prison and deprived him of his property. 10. The leaves fell to the ground. 11. Have you received the message yet? 12. People are destroying large areas of forest every day. 13. Mary's cat ran away last week. 14.1 hope they will have completed the repairs by tomorrow. 15. Some people were using the tennis court, so we couldn't play. 16. No one has solved that problem yet. 17. Did someone invite you to the party? 18.1 agree with you, gentlemen. 19. This news surprised me. 20. Mr. Lee will teach this class.

Exercise3. Translate into English.

1. Нам объяснили, как работает аппарат. 2. Его так хорошо описали, что мы сразу поняли, что это он. 3. Письмо было продиктовано мне по телефону. 4. Об этом законе физики лишь упомянули, он не был объяс­нен студентам. 5. Тебе когда-нибудь объясняли зна­чение этих слов? 6. Сообщение повторялось каждые полчаса. 7. Им указали на их недостойное поведение. 8. Заказчикам предложили новые условия контрак­та. 9. На днях вам было указано на эту проблему. 10. Вся информация будет записана для нас автоот­ветчиком.

Unit 4

Theme: Verbals: The infinitive

Rules:

The verb exists through a variety of grammatical forms that perform different syntactic functions.

According to their syntactic position verbal forms are divided into two main groups: finite (личные) and non-finite or verbals (неличные).

Finite verbal forms always function as predicate. They show a particular mood and tense and are linked to subject and agree with it in person and number. I am a teacher. He is at school. She reads much.

The non-finite verbal forms or verbals — the present participle or Participle I, the Past Participle or Particip­le II, the gerund and the infinitive can never be predicate in a sentence and thus have no grammatical subject. But they may perform predicative function, that is be part of a predicate in association with finite verbal forms. For example: He is watching TV. The house is built. The book has been read. My aim is to master English.

The verbals combine some characteristics of a verb with those of some other part of speech. Thus the gerund and infinitive have besides verbal characteristics some noun features and therefore may function as subject and object: Reading English books in the original requires an extensive vocabulary. (subject) I remember hearing it before. (object) To read English books in the original is a difficult task for a beginner. (subject) I learned to read at the age of four. (object)

The Participle has the characteristics of both verb and adjective and sometimes of verb and adverb. This results in the syntactic functions of attribute and adverbial modifier: Barking dogs never bite. The broken cup was on the table, (attribute) She always does her homework watching TV. (adverbial modifier)

Syntagmatic functioning of verbs

Irrespective their syntactic function verbs in either finite or non-finite form are characterized by their most significant grammatical feature, namely syntagmatics, that is their association with other parts of sentence. Syntag-matically verbs may be transitive, ditransitive, and intran­sitive.

Transitive verbs take a direct object: I saw the boy in the park. Seeing the boy in the park his mother waved to him. She opened the door. Having opened the door, we noticed a letter on the table. I raised my hat to greet her. I greeted her by raising my hat.

Intransitive verbs fall into 2 groups: 1) those which are used absolutely, that is require no object: My friends are coming to have dinner with us. I didn 't sleep very well last night. My children cannot swim. The sun rises in the East. 2) those that require a prepositional object: We waited for the bus for an hour. We agreed on a price for the car. She dealt with the difficult situation effectively.

Such verbs as give, bring, hand, send, buy can take both direct and indirect objects and are called ditransitive. For example: She gave the girl a glass of water. Bring Peter the book. I handed her a box of chocolates. We sent my friends a letter. Let me buy you a drink. (The girl, Peter, her, friends, me — are indirect objects; a glass of water, the box, a letter, a drink — are direct objects.)

The above sentences may as well be restructured into: She gave a glass of water to the girl. Bring the book to Peter. I handed a box of chocolates to her. We sent a letter to my friends. Let me buy a drink to you. Here the girl, Peter, her, friends and you are prepositional objects.

Verbs may be transitive in one of their uses and in­transitive in another. Compare: The cup fell and broke. — I broke the cup. The letter reads as follows... — We read the letter. She always writes with a pen. — She wrote to me a letter asking to come.

Besides, in a sentence verbs are often associated with adverbs or adverbial phrases used to modify or limit them. For example: He sings very well. She spoke in a low voice. Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. Excuse me for coming late.

Conjugation of verbs

The conjugation of the English verb is based on the 4 main forms. The first 2 forms are finite, the other 2 are non-finite.

The first is the present tense form which is equivalent to the infinitive without to and is used to form The Pre­sent Indefinite (Simple) Tense: come, read, clean, work, cry, etc. For example: I work every day. My children never cry.

The exception is the verb to be which has three pre­sent tense forms: am — in the first person singular, is — in the third person singular, and are — in the plural: I am a teacher. He is a pilot. We are friends. They are late. You are my only friend.

In the third person singular the present tense form takes the -(e)s suffix: He works every day. My daughter never cries. The exceptions are the verbs have and do. Their forms in the third person singular are has and does. He has nothing to do. She does all the homework. The second is the past tense form, came, read, cleaned, worked, cried, etc. Be has two forms: was, were.

As the above examples show there is a formal dif­ference between the past tense forms. This is due to the type of a particular verb.

Exercise1. Insert to where necessary before the infinitives in brackets.

1 He made me (do) it all over again. 2 She can (sing) quite well.3 He will be able (swim) very soon.4 I used (live) in a caravan.5 You ought (go) today. It may (rain) tomorrow.6 You needn't (say) anything. Just nod your head and he will (understand).7 I want (see) the house where our president was born. 8 He made her (repeat) the message.9 May I (use) your phone?10 You needn't (ask) for permission; you can (use) it whenever you like.11 If you want (get) there before dark you should (start) at once.12 I couldn't (remember) his address.13 You'll be able (do) it yourself when you are older.14 Would you like (go) now or shall we (wait) till the end?15 They won't let us (leave) the Customs shed till our luggage has been examined.16 How dare you (open) my letters!17 He didn't dare (argue) with his boss.18 I used (smoke) forty cigarettes a day.19 Will you help me (move) the bookcase?20 He wouldn't let my baby (play) with his gold watch.21 They refused (accept) the bribe.22 He is expected (arrive) in a few days.23 Please let me (know) your decision as soon as possible.24 He made us (wait) for hours.25 Could you (tell) me the time, please? 26 We must (send) him a telegram.27 I let him (go) early as he wanted (meet) his wife.28 Where would you like (have) lunch?29 You can (leave) your dog with us if you don't (want) (take) him with you.30 I'd like him (go) to a university but I can't (make) him (go).31 We could (go) to a concert, unless you'd prefer (visit) a museum.32 You seem (know) this area very well. ~Yes, I used (live) here. 33.The kidnappers told the parents (not inform) the police, and the parents didn't dare (disobey).34 Need I (come)? I'd much rather (stay) at home.35 You can (take) a horse to water but you can't (make) him (drink). (proverb)

Exercise2. Put the verbs in brackets into the gerund.

1 He gave up (gamble).2 Try to avoid (make) him angry.3 Stop (argue) and start (work).4 The children prefer (watch) TV to (read).5 I am against (make) any complaints.6 It's no use (cry) over spilt milk. {proverb)7 I suggest (hold) another meeting next week.8 He finished (speak) and sat down.9 He was fined for (drive) without lights.10 It is difficult to get used to (eat) with chopsticks.11 if you can't turn the key try (put) some oil in the lock.12 He lost no time in (get) down to work.13 You can't make an omelette without (break) eggs. (proverb)14 We are looking forward to (read) your new book.15 They escaped by (slide) down ropes made of blankets.16 They don't allow (smoke) in here.17 He is thinking of (leave) his job and (go) to America.18 After (read) this article you will give up (smoke).19 If you put your money into that business you risk (lose) every penny.20 Imagine (live) with someone who never stops (talk).21 Is there anything here worth (buy)? 22 He was accused of (leak) classified information to the press.23 You'd better consult your lawyer before (decide) to buy the property.24 I don't enjoy (go) to the dentist.25 Would you mind (put) your pet snake somewhere else?26 The hostages were rescued without a shot (be) fired.27 By (work) day and night he succeeded in (finish) the job in time.28 He has a scheme for (make) grass grow in winter.29 I don't feel like (work); what about (go) to a disco instead?30 Would you mind (write) your name and address on the back of the cheque?31 If a thing is worth (do) at all it is worth (do) well. (proverb)32I hate (borrow) money. 33 He was furious at (be) mistaken for an escaped convict. 34 After (talk) for ten minutes I succeeded in (convince) him that there was no danger. 35 I remember (read) a review of that book and (think) I'd like to get.36 As a result of (listen) at keyholes he learnt many facts which he no hesitation in (use)

to his own advantage.

Unit 5

Theme: Verbals. The participles.

Rules:

The participles

The present (or active) participle: The infinitive + ing, e.g. working, loving, sitting.

Use. To form the continuous tenses:

He is working. You 've been dreaming.

2 As adjectives:

running water floating wreckage dripping taps leaking pipes

Here there is equal stress on participle and noun. Compare with gerund + noun combinations).

3 After have + object:

He had me swimming in a week.

We have people standing on our steps all day.

I won't have him cleaning his bike in the kitchen.

4 A present participle can sometimes replace a relative pronoun + verb:

a map that marks/marked political boundaries =

a map marking political boundaries

5 Present participles/participle phrases such as adding/pointing out/ reminding/warning can introduce statements in indirect speech:

He told me to start early, reminding me that the roads would be crowded.

The above uses have already been dealt with. The present participle can also be used:

6 After verbs of sensation.

7 After catch/find/leave + object.

8 After go, come, spend, waste, be busy .

9 Present participles can sometimes replace subject + verb in other main or subordinate clauses other than those mentioned above .

Present participle after verbs of sensation

A The basic verbs of sensation see, hear, feel, smell, and the verbs listen (to), notice and watch can be followed by object + present participle:

/ see him passing my house every day.

Didn 't you hear the clock striking?

I felt the car skidding.

She smelt something burning and saw smoke rising.

I watched them rehearsing the play.

The action in the present participle may be either complete or incomplete: / saw him changing the wheel could mean that I watched the whole action or that I saw only part of it.

See, hear, feel and sometimes listen (to), notice and watch can

also be followed by object + bare infinitive:

We saw him leave the house.

I heard him make arrangements for his journey.

The infinitive implies that the action is complete. / saw him change the wheel means that I saw the whole action.

Comparison of the two forms

The participle is the more generally useful as it can express both complete and incomplete actions. But the infinitive is useful when we want to emphasize that the action is complete. It is also neater than the participle when there is a succession of actions:

/ saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document,

photograph it and put it back.

In the passive the full infinitive is used after verbs of the senses: He was heard to say that the minister had been bribed.

Catch, find, leave + object + present participle

/ caught them stealing my apples. (I found them doing this.)

If she catches you reading her diary, she'll be furious. The action expressed by the participle is always one which displeases the subject. With find there is no feeling of displeasure:

I found him standing at the door =

I saw him standing/He was standing at the door when I arrived. With find the object could be inanimate:

He found a tree lying across the road.

Leave can be used with a participle: / left him talking to Bob = He was talking to Bob when I left.

Go, come, spend, waste, be busy

go and come can be followed by the participles of verbs of physical activity and the verb shop:

They are going riding/skiing/sailing. Come dancing. I'm going shopping this afternoon. (For go and come followed by infinitives of purpose.

spend/waste + an expression of time or money + present participle: He spends two hours (a day) travelling. He doesn’t spend much time preparing his lessons. We wasted a whole afternoon trying to repair the car. He spent a lot of money modernizing the house.

be busy + present participle: She is/was busy packing.

A present participle phrase replacing a main clause

The participle constructions in A and В below are chiefly used in written English.

A When two actions by the same subject occur simultaneously it is usually possible to express one of them by a present participle. The participle can be before or after the finite verb:

He rode away. He whistled as he went. = He rode away whistling. He holds the rope with one hand and stretches out the other to the boy in the water = Holding, the rope with one hand, he stretches etc.

В When one action is immediately followed by another by the same

subject the first action can often be expressed by a present participle. The participle must be placed first:

He opened the drawer and took out a revolver = Opening the drawer he took out a revolver. She raised the trapdoor and pointed to a flight of steps = Raising the trapdoor she pointed to a flight of steps. We take off our shoes and creep cautiously along the passage = Taking off our shoes we creep cautiously along the passage. It would seem more logical here to use the perfect participle and say Having opened, Having raised, Having taken off, but this is not necessary except when the use of the present participle might lead to ambiguity. Eating his dinner he rushed out of the house would give the impression that he left the house with his plate in his hand. Here, therefore, it would be better to say Having eaten his dinner . . .

С When the second action forms part of the first, or is a result of it, we can express the second action by a present participle: She went out, slamming the door. He fired, wounding one of the bandits.

I fell, striking my head against the door and cutting it. (Here we have three actions, the last two expressed by participles.)

The participle need not necessarily have the same subject as the first verb:

The plane crashed, its bombs exploding as it hit the ground.

A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause

These constructions are chiefly found in written English.

The present participle can replace as/since/because + subject +

verb, i.e. it can help to explain the action which follows:

Knowing that he wouldn't be able to buy food on his journey he took

large supplies with him = As he knew etc.

Fearing that the police would recognize him he never went out in

daylight = As he feared etc.

Note that being at the beginning of a sentence will normally mean 'as he is/as he was':

Being a student he was naturally interested in museums =

Because/As he was a student etc. It could not mean 'while he was a student".

The subject of the participle need not be the same as the subject of the following verb:

The day being fine, we decided to go swimming.

In cases like this the participle must follow its noun/pronoun. Being fine the day, we decided ... is incorrect, but Being athletic, Tom found the climb quite easy is all right, as Tom is the subject of both the participle and the following verb. It is possible to use two or more participles, one after the other:

Realizing that he hadn 't enough money and not wanting to borrow

from his father, he decided to pawn his watch.

Not knowing the language and having no friends in the town, he

found it hard to get work.

The perfect participle (active)

Form: having + past participle, e.g. having done, having seen.

Use: The perfect participle emphasizes that the first action is complete before the second one starts, but is not normally necessary in combinations of this kind, except when the use of the present participle might lead to confusion. Reading the instructions, he snatched up the fire

extinguisher might give the impression that the two actions were simultaneous. Here, therefore, the perfect participle would be better:

Having read the instructions, he snatched up the fire extinguisher. The perfect participle is, however, necessary when there is an interval of time between the two actions:

Having failed twice, he didn't want to try again. It is also used when the first action covered a period of time:

Having been his own boss for such a long time, he found it hard to

accept orders from another.

The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive)

Form: The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding ed or d to the

infinitive, e.g. worked, loved.

Use

1 As an adjective:

stolen money a written report fallen trees broken glass tired drivers blocked roads.

2 To form the perfect tenses/infinitives and participles and the passive voice:

he has seen to have loved it was broken

3 The past participle can replace a subject + passive verb just as the present participle can replace subject + active verb:

She enters. She is accompanied by her mother. =

She enters, accompanied by her mother.

He was aroused by the crash and leapt to his feet =

Aroused by the crash, he leapt to his feet.

The bridge had been weakened by successive storms and was no

longer safe =

Weakened by successive storms, the bridge was no longer safe or

Having been weakened etc. (see below).

As he was convinced that they were trying to poison him, he refused to

eat anything =

Convinced that they were trying to poison him, he refused to eat

anything.

С The perfect participle passive (having been + past participle) is used when it is necessary to emphasize that the action expressed by the participle happened before the action expressed by the next verb:

Having been warned about the bandits, he left his valuables at home.

(He had been warned etc.)

Having been bitten twice, the postman refused to deliver our letters

unless we chained our dog up. (He had been bitten etc.)

Misrelated participles

A participle is considered to belong to the noun/pronoun which precedes it:

Tom, horrified at what he had done, could at first say nothing.

Romeo, believing that Juliet was dead, decided to kill himself.

A man carrying a large parcel got out of the bus. Note that the participle may be separated from its noun/pronoun by a main verb:

Jones and Smith came in, followed by their wives.

She rushed past the policeman, hoping he wouldn 't ask what she had

in her suitcase.

If there is no noun/pronoun in this position the participle is considered to belong to the subject of the following main verb:

Stunned by the blow, Peter fell heavily. (Peter had been stunned.)

Believing that he is alone, the villain expresses his thoughts aloud. If this principle is disregarded confusion results. Waiting for a bus a brick fell on my head makes it appear that the brick was waiting for a bus, which is nonsense. A participle linked in this way to the wrong noun/pronoun is said to be 'misrelated'. The above sentence should be rewritten As I was waiting for a bus a brick fell on my head. Other examples of misrelated participles:

When using this machine it must be remembered . . . Correct form:

When using this machine you must remember . . .

Believing that I was the only person who knew about this beach, the sight of someone else on it annoyed me very much. Correct form:

As I believed I was the only person etc. or

Believing that I was the only person on the beach, I was annoyed by the sight of someone else.

Exercise1. Translate the sentences into English, using the First Participle:

1 Она слышала, как ее отец ходит взад и вперед пол террасе. 2 Строго говоря, это не совсем то, что я хотела сказать. 3 Том увидел, что в воде что-то быстро движется. 4 Приехав домой, он увидел, что его совсем не ждали. 5 Холодные лучи заходящего солнца освещали вершины деревьев. 6 Он заметил, что за ним кто-то следит и, поняв это, решил изменить свой путь. 7 Было слышно, как где-то вдалеке играла музыка. 8 Судя по тому, как ласково она на него смотрит, он ей нравится. 9 Видя, что собираются тучи, мы решили отложить прогулку. 10 Дойдя до середины, я почувствовала, что мост дрожит. 11 Было слышно, как больной стонет от боли.12 услышав шаги на пустынной улице. Она насторожилась. 13 Стараясь скрыть свое Смущение, она начала что-то торопливо рассказывать, обращаясь к своему спутнику. 14 Выйдя в сад, я увидела, что дети мирно играют, как будто ничего не случилось. 15 Я наблюдала за тем, как внимательно он читал письмо. 16 Вообще говоря, у меня нет времени, чтобы выслушивать ее нелепые истории.

Exercise2. Translate the following word-groups into English. Pay attention to the place of the Second Participle:

иллюстрированный журнал; журнал, иллюстрированный известным художником; разбитое стекло; стекло, разбитое накануне; сломанный карандаш; ветка, сломанная ветром; взволнованные голоса; дети взволнованные происшедшим; потерянный ключ; ключ, потерянный вчера; газеты, полученные из Лондона; письмо, написанное незнакомым почерком.

Unit 6

Theme: Modal verbs

Rules:

MODAL	MEANING	EXAMPLE
CAN	physical and mental meaning possibility permission (more common than may) prohibition request	I can swim well. Everyone can make mistakes. Can I go home? You can’t cross the street here! Can I have some juice?
MAY	permission possibility	You may go now. You may become a doctor.
MUST	obligation, command prohibition (stricter than with can)	You must do it right now. Cars mustn’t be parked here
HAVE TO	obligation arising out of circumstances absence of necessity (in negatives)	I work hard as I have to keep my family. You don’t have to get up so early.
TO BE TO	obligation arising out of arrangement strict order strict prohibition smth unavoidable (= «суждено»)	We are to meet at 5. You are to stay here until I come back. You are not to do it. He was to become a doctor.
SHOULD/OUGHT TO	advice moral obligation should+have=reproach	You shouldn’t eat so much sweets. Children ought to help their children. You should have called me.
NEED	necessity	You needn’t do it right now.
SHALL	offer, necessity	Shall we begin?
WILL	willingness, intention polite request, offer insistence, resistance (= «никак не»)	I can and I will learn English. Will you help me? The door will not open.

Eercise1. Choose the right modal verb.

1The farm………..arrive in five minutes.

a) has to b) must c) is to d) should

2 I…………….forget to post the letter mother gave me.

a) shouldn’t b) mustn’t c) don’t have to d) cannot

3 If you want to be fit, you ……….eat sweets

a) don’t have to b) shouldn’t c) mustn’t d) cannot

4 The bus we took didn’t go up the hill and we ……walk

a) were to b) had to c) could d) should

5 The fire spread through the building very quickly but everyone……….

a) could b) had to c) was able to d) must

6 When Carol has passed her driving test, she …….hire a car from Jane.

a) has to b) must c) will be able to d) should

7 British pupils …….stay at school till the age of 16

a) should b) must c) can d) have to

8 You ………..drive fast. There is a speed limit.

a) needn’t b) mustn’t c) don’t have to d) are not

9You ……ring the bell, I’ve got a key.

a) needn’t b) mustn’t c) shouldn’t d) cannot

10 The train …….arrive in 5 minutes.

a) must b) can c) has to d) is to

Exercise2. Translate the following sentences using modal verbs.

1Эндрю должен был встретиться с Майком за ланчем на следующий день.

2 Не надо было ей вставать, эта прогулка может окончательно подорвать ее здоровье.

3 Должно быть, Алиса уже приехала, нам стоит поторопиться, чтобы встретить ее.

4 Неужели он работает с самого утра?

5Не может быть, что она вышла за него замуж!

6Неужели у тебя украли все деньги? Тебе следовало быть повнимательней.

7Концерт был назначен на пятницу, но его пришлось отложить из-за дождя.

8Тебе не следует так много есть, ты можешь располнеть.

9Вероятно ты не расслышал, что ты должен сделать это прямо сейчас!

10Возможно какая-то срочная работа задержала его, и он не смог прийти.

Exercise3. Use the following verbs:

could have might have

couldn't have must have

should have shouldn't have