- •Content
- •Preface
- •Biology as Science and Important Part of Our Life
- •Applying Life Science to Your Life
- •Careers, hobbies and element of personal culture
- •The scientific method
- •1. Basics of organisation of life
- •1.1. Nature and Properties of Life. Cell Theory
- •1.2. Energy and Energy Conversions. Chemistry aspects of life organisation
- •Ionic bonds
- •Ice floats
- •1.3. Life as Phenomenon of Universe
- •Fig. 1.6. Dna structure
- •2. Elements of general biology
- •2.1. Introduction to Cell Biology
- •Internal membranes
- •Pumping Molecules Through Cell Membranes (active transport)
- •Fig. 2.1. Diffusion into and out of cells
- •Fig. 2.2. Active transport of two different ions
- •Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms
- •Stored energy from the sun
- •The role of photosynthetic pigments
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •Respiration in the cells
- •Comparison of photosynthesis and respiration.
- •2.2. Introduction in Genetics
- •Fig. 2.3. Normal human (female) karyotype
- •Fig. 2.4. Dna ladder separates to form two identical dna ladders
- •Mitosis
- •Incomplete Dominance is Neither Dominant nor Recessive
- •X Chromosomes & y Chromosomes
- •Fig. 2.5. Process of meiosis
- •Fig. 2.6. Process of meiosis (continuation)
- •Inheritance of Blood Types
- •Variations and Mutations
- •Initiation of transcription requires a promoter and rna polymerase
- •2.3. The Introduction to Theory of Evolution
- •2.3.3. Classification and Identification
- •The system of Linnaeus
- •The scientific name
- •Bases of Modern Classification
- •Categories of Classification
- •Subdivisions of the Five Kingdoms
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •3. Aspects of biology of viruses, monera, protists, algae, fungi and lichens
- •3.1. Viruses
- •3.1.1. Discovery of viruses. Sizes of viruses
- •Viruses differ greatly in size. They range in length from 0.01 to over 0.3 micrometers; yet over 500 of them can fit on the point of the pin.
- •3.1.2. Characteristics of viruses
- •3.1.3. Kinds of viral infections
- •3.1.4. Defenses against viral infections
- •3.2. Kingdom Monera. Bacteria
- •3.2.1. Bacteria are organisms
- •3.2.2. Main groupes of bacteria Archaebacteria
- •Photosynthetic bacteria
- •Chemosynthetic bacteria
- •Cyanobacteria
- •Some bacteria are helpful
- •Some bacteria are harmful
- •Prevention and control of bacterial disease
- •3.3. Plantlike Protists. Kingdom Protista
- •3.4. Algae
- •Plants that live in water
- •Economic importance of algae
- •3.5. Fungi
- •3.5.1. Terrestrial molds
- •3.5.2. Water molds
- •3.5.3. Slime molds
- •3.5.4. Club fungi
- •3.5.5. Sac fungi
- •3.5.6. Imperfect fungi
- •3.5.7. Fungi and habitats
- •3.5.8. Adaptations to life on land
- •3.5.9. Ecological and economic roles
- •3.6. Lichens
- •3.6.1.Structure
- •3.6.2. Habitats
- •3.6.3. Nutrition
- •3.6.4. Ecological role
- •3.6.5. Reproduction
- •Summary and test questions
- •4. Botany
- •Nonvascular and vascular plants
- •Seed plants
- •4.1. Bryophytes and Mosses
- •4.1.2. Mosses
- •4.2. Ferns
- •4.2.1. Physical structure
- •4.2.2. Life cycle of ferns
- •4.3. Gymnosperms
- •4.3.1. Conifers
- •Importance of conifers
- •4.3.2. Cycads
- •4.3.3. Ginkgoes
- •4.3.4. Gnetales
- •4.4. Angiosperms
- •Kinds of plant tissues
- •Root structure
- •Flowers and sexual reproduction
- •Leaves and water loss
- •Table 4.1 Comparative characteristics of monocots and dicots
- •5.1. Phylum Protozoa
- •5.1.4. Class Sporozoa
- •5.2. Phylum Porifera: Sponges
- •5.3. Phylum Coelenterata
- •5.4. Phylum Plathelminthes. Flatworms
- •5.5. Phylum Nemathelminthes: Roundworms
- •5.6. Phylum Annelids
- •5.7. Phylum Molluska: Mollusks
- •5.8. Phylum Arthropoda
- •Incomplete Metamorphosis
- •5.9. Phylum Chordata
- •Classification and Characteristics of Amphibians
- •The 4,500 species of mammals live throughout the world. Mammals can live in different environments because their flexible body plan has allowed the various species to undergo many special adaptations.
- •5.10. Classification of Kingdom Animalia
- •6. Human Biology
- •Introduction
- •6.1. The skeleton system
- •6.2. The muscular system
- •6.3. The integumentary system
- •6.4. The respiratory system
- •6.5. The excretory system
- •6.6. Nervous control and coordination
- •Introduction
- •6.7. Sense organs
- •Introduction
- •Vision, Hearing, and Balance
- •6.8. Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •6.9. Circulatory system
- •Introduction
- •Immune Response
- •Immunity
- •6.10. Nutrition and digestion
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamins and Minerals
- •6.11. Reproduction and development
- •Introduction
- •Influence of external environmental factors on human health
- •6.12. World populationand its regulation
- •World population, total quantity and annual increase, 1950–2000 (us Bureau, 2001)
- •7. Biodiversity as phenomenon of life
- •Introduction
- •7.1. Biodiversity and problems of its preservation
- •Biodiversity components and levels (Global, 1995)
- •Quantitative assessment of the species diversity of the planet (Global, 2001)
- •7.2. Biodiversity conservation in Ukraine: conceptual developments and challenges
- •7.3. Protected Areas and Econet of Ukraine as instruments of conservation and innovation
- •7.4. Transboundary protected areas and opportunities for cooperation
- •Carpathians case (successful story)
- •The greening of local environment
- •Conclusion
- •Annex 1. Classification of living organisms
- •Bibliography
- •Additional references
- •Other information resources
- •Terms and definition index
3.1.4. Defenses against viral infections
Many drugs used to treat other infections cannot be used on viruses. The body provides its own best natural defense against viral disease. This natural resistance to disease is called immunity.
The skin and the mucous membranes are the body’s first line of defense. Cilia and mucus in body linings inhibit the entry of some pathogens. Nevertheless, most viruses enter the body through the nose and mouth.
Immunity to disease resulting from the production of antibodies is called active immunity. Passive immunity occurs when a person receives antibodies produced in other person or in an animal that has developed immunity to the disease. Once viruses enter, the body attacks them directly. White blood cells destroy invading viruses. The second method of defense involves the production of certain protein molecules — antibodies. The body’s third method of defense is the production of the protein interferon. Interferon triggers the production of an enzyme that enables a cell to recognize a virus as a foreign invader. The enzyme prevents the reproduction of the invading viruses.
Interferon is species specific – that is interferon produced in one species will work only in that species. For example, interferon produced by a mouse will not be effective in a rabbit or in humans.
3.2. Kingdom Monera. Bacteria
3.2.1. Bacteria are organisms
Bacteria Are Simple Cells
Bacteria can live in many environments where other organisms cannot survive. These environments include icy polar lands, boiling hot springs, deep ocean waters and even the air you breathe.
Some bacteria live independently, some in close, permanent association with organisms of other species. Such conditions are called symbiosis. Three forms of symbiosis occur. In mutualism both organisms – the bacterium and its host – benefit. In commensalism one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. In parasitism one organism benefits and the other is harmed.
Bacteria are among the simplest and smallest living things. They are tiny monerans that have no separate nucleus. A single chromosome of DNA is found in their cytoplasm. Bacteria have no mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum. Their cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell membrane. Enzymes that help bacteria release energy from food are found along the cell membrane. It provides shape and can keep bacteria from bursting. Some bacteria are also surrounded by simply capsules that give them extra protection.
Most bacteria have one of three basic shapes: rod, round, or spiral. The rod-shaped ones are called bacilli; the round ones, cocci; and the spiral ones, spirilla.
Some bacteria have long thin extensions called flagella; A bacterium may have a single flagellum or numerous flagella, all over its cell surface. Pili are extensions similar to flagella, but are shorter, thinner, and more numerous. Bacteria use pili to attach themselves to a source of food or oxygen or to another bacterium.
Not all bacterial cells are capable of movement. Those that move are called motile and those that do not move are called nonmotile.
Bacterial nutrition and metabolism
Bacteria are extremely versatile metabolically. Some are autotrophic – that is, they produce their own food. The most familiar autotrophic organisms are those that are photosynthetic. Some autotrophic bacteria derive their energy from sunlight, others from the breakdown of inorganic chemicals – a process called chemosynthesis.
Most bacteria are heterotrophs, depending on autotrophs for food. Heterotrophs may ingest other organisms, as most members of the animal kingdom do; they may be saprobes, procuring organic molecules from dead organic matter or they may be parasites, using organic molecules from living organisms.
Respiration
Some bacteria need oxygen to carry out respiration. Others use oxygen when it is available. Some doesn’t need oxygen at all, and in fact die in the presence of oxygen.
Bacteria that require oxygen to live are called obligate aerobes. Obligate aerobes generally live where there is an ample supply of oxygen, such as in the air or in loose soil. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is an obligate aerobe that can live in the lungs of human beings.
Bacteria that cannot live in the presence of oxygen are called obligate anaerobes. These organisms are found where there is little or no oxygen, such as deep in the soil or in mud at the bottom of lakes. Methanogens are obligate anaerobes. An obligate anaerobe called Clostridium botulinum causes a dangerous type of food poisoning known as botulism. If canned food is improperly prepared, botulism bacteria may begin to grow in the almost oxygen-free environment inside the can or jar.
The third type of bacteria, called facultative anaerobes, can grow with or without oxygen. The most common bacterium in the human digestive tract is a facultative anaerobe.
Growth. Reproduction and genetic transfer
Bacterial growth usually refers to an increase in the number of bacteria, rather then to an increase in its size. A colony is a large group of bacteria, such as that grown on a nutrient plate in a laboratory. All the members of colony are descendants of a single bacterium. All bacteria need food and water and many need oxygen. Other factors that influence growth are temperature, sunlight and chemicals.
Under ideal conditions, some bacteria can reproduce every 20 to 30 minutes. Bacteria usually reproduce through binary fissions, or splitting in two. Each new cell is exactly like the parent cell. Mutations, the result of errors or changes in the genetic code, account in part for the extraordinary ability of bacteria to adjust to differing conditions (Tabl. 3.1).
Genetic material in some cases is transferred from one bacterium to another, resulting in genetic recombination. When the bacterium later divides, it passes on its new genes to the daughter cell. In this way, resistance to antibiotics can be transferred from one of bacteria to another.
In a process called conjugation, a donor bacterium transfers genetic material to an acceptor bacterium through direct contact.
Transformation process transfers genetic material from a dead strain, or genetic type, of bacteria to a live strain.