- •Content
- •Preface
- •Biology as Science and Important Part of Our Life
- •Applying Life Science to Your Life
- •Careers, hobbies and element of personal culture
- •The scientific method
- •1. Basics of organisation of life
- •1.1. Nature and Properties of Life. Cell Theory
- •1.2. Energy and Energy Conversions. Chemistry aspects of life organisation
- •Ionic bonds
- •Ice floats
- •1.3. Life as Phenomenon of Universe
- •Fig. 1.6. Dna structure
- •2. Elements of general biology
- •2.1. Introduction to Cell Biology
- •Internal membranes
- •Pumping Molecules Through Cell Membranes (active transport)
- •Fig. 2.1. Diffusion into and out of cells
- •Fig. 2.2. Active transport of two different ions
- •Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms
- •Stored energy from the sun
- •The role of photosynthetic pigments
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •Respiration in the cells
- •Comparison of photosynthesis and respiration.
- •2.2. Introduction in Genetics
- •Fig. 2.3. Normal human (female) karyotype
- •Fig. 2.4. Dna ladder separates to form two identical dna ladders
- •Mitosis
- •Incomplete Dominance is Neither Dominant nor Recessive
- •X Chromosomes & y Chromosomes
- •Fig. 2.5. Process of meiosis
- •Fig. 2.6. Process of meiosis (continuation)
- •Inheritance of Blood Types
- •Variations and Mutations
- •Initiation of transcription requires a promoter and rna polymerase
- •2.3. The Introduction to Theory of Evolution
- •2.3.3. Classification and Identification
- •The system of Linnaeus
- •The scientific name
- •Bases of Modern Classification
- •Categories of Classification
- •Subdivisions of the Five Kingdoms
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •3. Aspects of biology of viruses, monera, protists, algae, fungi and lichens
- •3.1. Viruses
- •3.1.1. Discovery of viruses. Sizes of viruses
- •Viruses differ greatly in size. They range in length from 0.01 to over 0.3 micrometers; yet over 500 of them can fit on the point of the pin.
- •3.1.2. Characteristics of viruses
- •3.1.3. Kinds of viral infections
- •3.1.4. Defenses against viral infections
- •3.2. Kingdom Monera. Bacteria
- •3.2.1. Bacteria are organisms
- •3.2.2. Main groupes of bacteria Archaebacteria
- •Photosynthetic bacteria
- •Chemosynthetic bacteria
- •Cyanobacteria
- •Some bacteria are helpful
- •Some bacteria are harmful
- •Prevention and control of bacterial disease
- •3.3. Plantlike Protists. Kingdom Protista
- •3.4. Algae
- •Plants that live in water
- •Economic importance of algae
- •3.5. Fungi
- •3.5.1. Terrestrial molds
- •3.5.2. Water molds
- •3.5.3. Slime molds
- •3.5.4. Club fungi
- •3.5.5. Sac fungi
- •3.5.6. Imperfect fungi
- •3.5.7. Fungi and habitats
- •3.5.8. Adaptations to life on land
- •3.5.9. Ecological and economic roles
- •3.6. Lichens
- •3.6.1.Structure
- •3.6.2. Habitats
- •3.6.3. Nutrition
- •3.6.4. Ecological role
- •3.6.5. Reproduction
- •Summary and test questions
- •4. Botany
- •Nonvascular and vascular plants
- •Seed plants
- •4.1. Bryophytes and Mosses
- •4.1.2. Mosses
- •4.2. Ferns
- •4.2.1. Physical structure
- •4.2.2. Life cycle of ferns
- •4.3. Gymnosperms
- •4.3.1. Conifers
- •Importance of conifers
- •4.3.2. Cycads
- •4.3.3. Ginkgoes
- •4.3.4. Gnetales
- •4.4. Angiosperms
- •Kinds of plant tissues
- •Root structure
- •Flowers and sexual reproduction
- •Leaves and water loss
- •Table 4.1 Comparative characteristics of monocots and dicots
- •5.1. Phylum Protozoa
- •5.1.4. Class Sporozoa
- •5.2. Phylum Porifera: Sponges
- •5.3. Phylum Coelenterata
- •5.4. Phylum Plathelminthes. Flatworms
- •5.5. Phylum Nemathelminthes: Roundworms
- •5.6. Phylum Annelids
- •5.7. Phylum Molluska: Mollusks
- •5.8. Phylum Arthropoda
- •Incomplete Metamorphosis
- •5.9. Phylum Chordata
- •Classification and Characteristics of Amphibians
- •The 4,500 species of mammals live throughout the world. Mammals can live in different environments because their flexible body plan has allowed the various species to undergo many special adaptations.
- •5.10. Classification of Kingdom Animalia
- •6. Human Biology
- •Introduction
- •6.1. The skeleton system
- •6.2. The muscular system
- •6.3. The integumentary system
- •6.4. The respiratory system
- •6.5. The excretory system
- •6.6. Nervous control and coordination
- •Introduction
- •6.7. Sense organs
- •Introduction
- •Vision, Hearing, and Balance
- •6.8. Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •6.9. Circulatory system
- •Introduction
- •Immune Response
- •Immunity
- •6.10. Nutrition and digestion
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamins and Minerals
- •6.11. Reproduction and development
- •Introduction
- •Influence of external environmental factors on human health
- •6.12. World populationand its regulation
- •World population, total quantity and annual increase, 1950–2000 (us Bureau, 2001)
- •7. Biodiversity as phenomenon of life
- •Introduction
- •7.1. Biodiversity and problems of its preservation
- •Biodiversity components and levels (Global, 1995)
- •Quantitative assessment of the species diversity of the planet (Global, 2001)
- •7.2. Biodiversity conservation in Ukraine: conceptual developments and challenges
- •7.3. Protected Areas and Econet of Ukraine as instruments of conservation and innovation
- •7.4. Transboundary protected areas and opportunities for cooperation
- •Carpathians case (successful story)
- •The greening of local environment
- •Conclusion
- •Annex 1. Classification of living organisms
- •Bibliography
- •Additional references
- •Other information resources
- •Terms and definition index
Quantitative assessment of the species diversity of the planet (Global, 2001)
Kingdoms |
Number of described species |
Total number of species (estimated) |
Bacteria |
4000 |
1000000 |
Protozoa |
80000 |
600000 |
Animals |
1320000 |
10600000 |
Fungi |
70000 |
1500000 |
Plants |
270000 |
300000 |
Total |
1744000 |
14000000 |
On other hand, many species are under threats of extinction, and situation is getting worse and worse. Extinction of species is irreversible process leading to deterioration of the ecosystem. Scientific assessments based on geological data shows that “normal” average rate of species extinction is five multi cellular organisms as per two years. The same indicator for vertebrates is much less; “normally”, the planet is losing one bird species per 400 years and one species of mammals per 800 years. Regretfully, real picture is different. According to the preliminary estimations, 350 species of vertebrates and 400 species of invertebrates were disappeared from the planet during last 400 years. It means that registered losses are as much higher as hundreds times as to compare to estimated figures.
There are two main causes of biodiversity deterioration. The first very obvious cause of the decreasing of human populations’ number is uncontrolled and unsustainable extermination of living organisms, first of all fauna species representing some values for humanity. The second, not less important cause is as well human activity aimed at extension of the habitat areas. Urbanisation and development of rural settlements, extension of arable lands for agricultural practices, industrial constructions, building the roads and pipelines, increasing the shipping activities, natural resources extraction and other kinds of economic activity inevitably decreasing the habitat areas of wild plants and animals. Both direct (extermination of organisms) and indirect (destroying the natural habitats) influence of human activity are key treats for biodiversity.
Details
Few hundreds years ago, territory of modern Ukraine was covered by forests (55%), steppes (32%), wetlands (5%), meadows 1%). However, since beginning of the 20th century the picture has been significantly changed. As of now (2007), the forests are covering only 14,6% of the territory of the country and half of them are man-made ones. Steppes represent less than 1% of territory, bogs and swamps – 3%, meadows’ area has been increased up to 9%, and arable lands cover 56% of the country (highest level in Europe). 30% of arable lands are deteriorated by erosion. Sharp decrease of territory of virginal natural lands causes significant reduction of habitats of wild species of animals and plants.
Biodiversity conservation is aimed at achievement at least of two objectives: first one is conservation of genetic resources constituting basis of species diversity, and second one is conservation of etalon ecosystems of biosphere for sustainable development and reproducing of species.
There are two systematic practical approaches for biodiversity conservation. Approach in-situ is focused on conservation of biodiversity at natural conditions. Approach ex-situ envisages conservation of organisms and their derivatives in artificial conditions out of ecosystems and native habitats. Both of them are important and mutually complementary.
An important instruments for the co-operative rebuilding of ecologically-friendly societies are to be 1) a co-coordinated system of national eco-law, being based on principles and decisions of global and regional conventions, 2) the strengthening policies to develop ecological alternatives (for example, via environmentally sound technical and technological assistance) and technological re-orientation, 3) making global financial-economic and banking spheres environmentally responsible and the development of system of global, regional and national environmental responsibility, inter alia, through global and regional conventions, agreements and commitments 4) the development of international innovative environmental institutions for the purpose of insuring synergetic development (the best example now is the Global Environment Facility, GEF), 5) the “greening” of local communities.
Ukraine re-gained its independence in 1991 and as a typical representative of a post-communist society, it inherited from the previous system long series of problems related to the environment, including unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, particularly mineral deposits, and bioresources (forests and wildlife), water, air and soil pollution, land erosion, radionuclide contamination. Due to extensive agricultural activity steppe landscapes were mitigated. It could be quite difficult to implement sustainable development policy even under favorable conditions of a prosperous economy, thus it is even more difficult to pursue this goal in Ukraine, since the country is now undergoing dramatic changes, trying to overcome a profound crisis and to resolve numerous particular problems. It is important to consider on thia way the process of development of the legal system, the system of socio-economic motivation of eco-sustainable activity and alternatives, opportunities, connected with international cooperation, regional and local challenges and expectations.