- •Content
- •Preface
- •Biology as Science and Important Part of Our Life
- •Applying Life Science to Your Life
- •Careers, hobbies and element of personal culture
- •The scientific method
- •1. Basics of organisation of life
- •1.1. Nature and Properties of Life. Cell Theory
- •1.2. Energy and Energy Conversions. Chemistry aspects of life organisation
- •Ionic bonds
- •Ice floats
- •1.3. Life as Phenomenon of Universe
- •Fig. 1.6. Dna structure
- •2. Elements of general biology
- •2.1. Introduction to Cell Biology
- •Internal membranes
- •Pumping Molecules Through Cell Membranes (active transport)
- •Fig. 2.1. Diffusion into and out of cells
- •Fig. 2.2. Active transport of two different ions
- •Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms
- •Stored energy from the sun
- •The role of photosynthetic pigments
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •Respiration in the cells
- •Comparison of photosynthesis and respiration.
- •2.2. Introduction in Genetics
- •Fig. 2.3. Normal human (female) karyotype
- •Fig. 2.4. Dna ladder separates to form two identical dna ladders
- •Mitosis
- •Incomplete Dominance is Neither Dominant nor Recessive
- •X Chromosomes & y Chromosomes
- •Fig. 2.5. Process of meiosis
- •Fig. 2.6. Process of meiosis (continuation)
- •Inheritance of Blood Types
- •Variations and Mutations
- •Initiation of transcription requires a promoter and rna polymerase
- •2.3. The Introduction to Theory of Evolution
- •2.3.3. Classification and Identification
- •The system of Linnaeus
- •The scientific name
- •Bases of Modern Classification
- •Categories of Classification
- •Subdivisions of the Five Kingdoms
- •Identifying Photosynthetic Reactants and Products
- •3. Aspects of biology of viruses, monera, protists, algae, fungi and lichens
- •3.1. Viruses
- •3.1.1. Discovery of viruses. Sizes of viruses
- •Viruses differ greatly in size. They range in length from 0.01 to over 0.3 micrometers; yet over 500 of them can fit on the point of the pin.
- •3.1.2. Characteristics of viruses
- •3.1.3. Kinds of viral infections
- •3.1.4. Defenses against viral infections
- •3.2. Kingdom Monera. Bacteria
- •3.2.1. Bacteria are organisms
- •3.2.2. Main groupes of bacteria Archaebacteria
- •Photosynthetic bacteria
- •Chemosynthetic bacteria
- •Cyanobacteria
- •Some bacteria are helpful
- •Some bacteria are harmful
- •Prevention and control of bacterial disease
- •3.3. Plantlike Protists. Kingdom Protista
- •3.4. Algae
- •Plants that live in water
- •Economic importance of algae
- •3.5. Fungi
- •3.5.1. Terrestrial molds
- •3.5.2. Water molds
- •3.5.3. Slime molds
- •3.5.4. Club fungi
- •3.5.5. Sac fungi
- •3.5.6. Imperfect fungi
- •3.5.7. Fungi and habitats
- •3.5.8. Adaptations to life on land
- •3.5.9. Ecological and economic roles
- •3.6. Lichens
- •3.6.1.Structure
- •3.6.2. Habitats
- •3.6.3. Nutrition
- •3.6.4. Ecological role
- •3.6.5. Reproduction
- •Summary and test questions
- •4. Botany
- •Nonvascular and vascular plants
- •Seed plants
- •4.1. Bryophytes and Mosses
- •4.1.2. Mosses
- •4.2. Ferns
- •4.2.1. Physical structure
- •4.2.2. Life cycle of ferns
- •4.3. Gymnosperms
- •4.3.1. Conifers
- •Importance of conifers
- •4.3.2. Cycads
- •4.3.3. Ginkgoes
- •4.3.4. Gnetales
- •4.4. Angiosperms
- •Kinds of plant tissues
- •Root structure
- •Flowers and sexual reproduction
- •Leaves and water loss
- •Table 4.1 Comparative characteristics of monocots and dicots
- •5.1. Phylum Protozoa
- •5.1.4. Class Sporozoa
- •5.2. Phylum Porifera: Sponges
- •5.3. Phylum Coelenterata
- •5.4. Phylum Plathelminthes. Flatworms
- •5.5. Phylum Nemathelminthes: Roundworms
- •5.6. Phylum Annelids
- •5.7. Phylum Molluska: Mollusks
- •5.8. Phylum Arthropoda
- •Incomplete Metamorphosis
- •5.9. Phylum Chordata
- •Classification and Characteristics of Amphibians
- •The 4,500 species of mammals live throughout the world. Mammals can live in different environments because their flexible body plan has allowed the various species to undergo many special adaptations.
- •5.10. Classification of Kingdom Animalia
- •6. Human Biology
- •Introduction
- •6.1. The skeleton system
- •6.2. The muscular system
- •6.3. The integumentary system
- •6.4. The respiratory system
- •6.5. The excretory system
- •6.6. Nervous control and coordination
- •Introduction
- •6.7. Sense organs
- •Introduction
- •Vision, Hearing, and Balance
- •6.8. Endocrine system
- •Introduction
- •6.9. Circulatory system
- •Introduction
- •Immune Response
- •Immunity
- •6.10. Nutrition and digestion
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamins and Minerals
- •6.11. Reproduction and development
- •Introduction
- •Influence of external environmental factors on human health
- •6.12. World populationand its regulation
- •World population, total quantity and annual increase, 1950–2000 (us Bureau, 2001)
- •7. Biodiversity as phenomenon of life
- •Introduction
- •7.1. Biodiversity and problems of its preservation
- •Biodiversity components and levels (Global, 1995)
- •Quantitative assessment of the species diversity of the planet (Global, 2001)
- •7.2. Biodiversity conservation in Ukraine: conceptual developments and challenges
- •7.3. Protected Areas and Econet of Ukraine as instruments of conservation and innovation
- •7.4. Transboundary protected areas and opportunities for cooperation
- •Carpathians case (successful story)
- •The greening of local environment
- •Conclusion
- •Annex 1. Classification of living organisms
- •Bibliography
- •Additional references
- •Other information resources
- •Terms and definition index
6.10. Nutrition and digestion
The human body is a marvelous, complex machine. Like many machines, it needs fuel in order to operate. Food is that fuel. However, food is very different from all other types of fuel. In addition to providing energy, food also supplies almost all of the materials required for the growth, maintenance, and repair of the human machine - the body.
Actually, energy and building materials exist in food only in potential form. The body cannot directly use food in either its raw or cooked state. Your body cannot take a steak and attach it to your biceps to give you a stronger muscle. Your body must change the food you eat in usable form.
Food and Nutrition
When you sit down to a meal, you immediately notice the appearance, aroma, and taste of foods. The most important thing about the food, however, is whether it provides the proper nutrients, the substances needed for the body growth and maintanence. Your daily diet should include the proper amounts of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. All the nutrients required for the functioning of the body can be obtained by drinking water and eating the proper amount of food from four basic food groups. These group are the milk group, the meat group, the fruit and vegetable group, and the grain and grain products group.
Proteins
Proteins are the major building blocks of body tissue. The body requires proteins for growth and tissue repair. Proteins called enzymes act as catalysts in chemical reactions in the body. The body can even use proteins to supple energy if its supplies of carbohydrates and fats have been used up.
Proteins consist of long chains of molecules called aminoacids. The body requires 20 kinds of amino acids, which are divided into two groups based on dietary requirements. The nonessential amino acids are those that the body can synthesize from other amino acids. The essential amino acids must be obtained directly from food and so are required in the diet. There are 12 nonessential and 8 essential amino acids. The essential amino acids must be obtained directly from food and so are required in the diet. There are 12 nonessential and 8 essential amino acids.
Complete proteins contain the 8 essential amino acids. From these, the body can synthesize the 12 nonessential amino acids. Meat, eggs, and dairy products contain complete proteins. Incomplete proteins do not all essential amino acids. Most plant proteins are incomplete. However, a diet that combines plant proteins can provide all the essential amino acids.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates supply most of the body’s energy needs. The simplest form of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, or a simple sugar molecule. Glucose,fructose,dextrose,and galactose are monosaccharides. They exist in such foods as fruits, honey,syrups, artichokes, and onions. Disaccharides, or double sugars, consist of two monosaccharides. Disaccharides include sucrose, or cane sugar; and lactose, which is found in milk.
Complex carbohydrates called polysaccharides consist of many simple sugar molecules. Starches and cellulose are two important polysaccharides. Starches are found in cereal grain and such vegetables as potatoes, beans, and corn. Cellulose is present in all plant tissues but cannot be digested by human beings. However, cellulose provides the body with fiber, which aids digestion by stimulating the muscles of the digestive tract.
Fats
Fats are highly concentrated sources of energy. They provide twice as much energy per gram as do carbohydrates are not available for energy. Fats also form part of cell membranes and organelles. Thus, they are a structural material of the body.
Fats exist in two forms-saturated and unsaturated. Both forms consist of hydrogen,carbon, and oxygen atoms. In saturated fat, all the carbon atoms are joined by single bonds, and so the molecules contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. It is saturated with hydrogen. An unsaturated fat has at least one double bond between carbon atoms. For every double bond, two hydrogen atoms are missing. A molecule with two or more double bonds is called polyunsaturated. Animal fats are saturated fats. Butter, lard, and other saturated fats are solids at room temperature. Plant oils are unsaturated fats. Corn oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, and other unsaturated fats.