- •Introduction
- •Chapter # 1. The foundations of atomic-molecular studies. The laws and concepts of stoichiometry
- •Vocabulary
- •Subject and Tasks of Chemistry
- •General notions of atomic-molecular studies
- •Number of atoms of an element
- •Example of solution
- •Amount of substance. Mole. Avogadro’s Number. Molar mass
- •Number of moles of an element
- •Mass of an element (grams)
- •X Molar mass of element (Mm)
- •4. The laws and concepts of Stoichiometry
- •5. Types of chemical reactions
- •Chapter # 2. Atomic structure
- •Vocabulary
- •General notions
- •Theories of atomic structure
- •Figure 3. Spatial orientation of p-orbitals
- •3. Principles for distribution of electrons in atoms Distributions of electrons in atoms on energy levels and sub-levels may be presented in the form of electronic formulas.
- •Ground state
- •4. Valency and Oxidation number as function of electrons distribution
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 3. The periodic law and periodic table of chemical elements
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Formulation
- •2. Physical meaning of the chemical periodicity
- •3. The Periodic Table
- •Periodical table of chemical elements named by d.I. Mendeleev
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 4. Chemical bonding
- •Vocabulary
- •Types of Chemical Bonds
- •Ionic bond
- •Nonpolar-covalent bond
- •P olar-covalent bond
- •Figure 10. Formation of Hydrogen Bonds between water molecules
- •Figure 11. Depending of boiling-points (b.Pt) of double Hydrogen-contained compounds from nature of the second atom and presence of Hydrogen bonding
- •Why does Chemical Bond occur?
- •Practice problems
- •Сhapter # 5. Laboratory glassware, labware and rules of laboratory research
- •Vocabulary
- •Chemical glassware
- •2. Chemical reagents and their storage
- •3. Elementary operations carrying out
- •4. Safety rules during carrying out laboratory works
- •5. Rules for reagents and equipment use
- •6. Rules for work carrying out and results design
- •Chapter # 6. The main classes of inorganic compounds
- •Vocabulary
- •Classification of inorganic substances
- •Inorganic substances
- •Compounds
- •2. Relation between main classes of inorganic substances
- •3. Oxides
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •4. Bases
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •5. Acids
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Amphoteric hydroxides
- •Preparation
- •7. Salts
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Thermal decomposition with medium salts formation:
- •Structural-graphic formulas of chemical compounds
- •Example of solution
- •Chapter # 7. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •Vocabulary
- •Solutions
- •Concentration of solutions
- •Molarity (molar concentration)
- •Theory of dissociation
- •Degree of dissociation
- •Main classes of inorganic substances from viewpoint of theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •6. Ionic equations
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 8. Ionic product of water. Hydrolysis of salts
- •Vocabulary
- •Ionic product of water. Notion of pH
- •General notion of Hydrolysis
- •Different types of Hydrolysis
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Identification of reaction medium in solutions of salts
- •Experiment 2. Influence of temperature to hydrolysis
- •Chapter # 9. Oxidation-reduction reactions
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Oxidation of Elements
- •2. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •3. Compiling Equations of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •4. Most Important Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- •Types of Redox Reactions
- •Influence of Medium to Redox Reactions
- •Electromotive Series of Metals
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Reducing properties of metal ions of lower oxidation number
- •Chapter # 10. Complex (coordination) compounds
- •2. Nomenclature
- •3. Rules for naming of coordination compounds
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 11. The halogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •2. Chlorine
- •Laboratory training
- •Experiment 2. Halogens oxidative activity in free state
- •Experiment 5. The salts of hydrohalogen acids insoluble in water
- •Chapter # 12. The chalcogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Oxygen
- •3. Sulfur
- •Experiment 6. Dilution of concentrated Sulfuric acid
- •Experiment 9. Instability of thiosulfuric acid
- •Chapter # 13. Nitrogen, phosphorus
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Nitrogen
- •3. Phosphorus
- •Phosphorus behaves as the typical non-metal. It reacts with Oxygen, formed acid oxides:
- •Experiment 2. Oxidation and reducing power of nitrous acid and Nitrites
- •Chapter # 14. Chemistry of main biometals
- •Vocabulary
- •1. The Alkali Metals
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Other bioactive metals
4. Bases
Bases are complex substances, in which atoms of metals or ionic groups (for example, NH4+) are bonded with one or several hydroxyls groups.
Classification of bases: they are divided into two groups - soluble in waters (alkalis - LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, FrOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2) and insoluble (for example, Fe(OH)2, Cu(OH)2 etc.). Insoluble bases include amphoteric ones too (Al(OH)3, Cr(OH)3, Zn(OH)2 etc.).
According to quantity of OH- bases may be divided into:
One-acidic (NaOH);
Two-acidic (Ca(OH)2);
Three-acidic (Cr(OH)3) and so on.
Preparation
1. Interaction of alkaline and alkaline-earth metals and water forming alkalis and free Hydrogen:
2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2;
Ва + 2Н2О = Ва(ОН)2 + Н2;
2. Direct interaction of alkaline and alkaline-earth metals oxides and water forming the alkalis:
Na2O + H2O = 2NaOH;
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2;
3. Insoluble bases may be prepared by interaction between soluble salts of corresponding metals and alkali solution:
Cu(NO3)2 + 2LiOH = Cu(OH)2 + 2LiNO3;
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4.
Chemical properties
Interaction with acidic oxides forming the salts and water:
2LiOH + SO3 = Li2SO4 + H2O;
Cа(OH)2 + N2O5 = Ca(NO3)2 + H2O;
Interaction with acids forming the salts and water:
2LiOH + H2SO4 = Li2SO4 +2H2O;
Cа(OH)2 + 2HNO3 = Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O;
Interaction with amphoteric oxides forming the salts and water:
2KOH + ZnO = K2ZnO2 + H2O;
3Ba(OH)2 + Al2O3 = Ba3(AlO3)2 + 3H2O;
Interaction with amphoteric hydroxides forming the salts and water:
3NaOH + Cr(OH)3 = Na3CrO3 + 3H2O;
Ca(OH)2 + Sn(OH)2 = CaSnO2 + 2H2O;
5. Alkalis react with some salts:
2NH4Cl + Sr(OH)2 = 2NH4OH + SrCl2;
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6LiOH = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3Li2SO4.
5. Acids
Acids are the complex substances, consisting from Hydrogen atoms and acid radical (residue).
According to quantity of H+ (basicity) acids may be divided into:
One-basic (HCl, HNO3, HClO4, CH3–COOH etc.);
Two-basic (H2CO3, H2SO3, H2SO4 etc.);
Three-basic (H3BO3, H3PO4, H3AsO4 etc.);
Four-basic (H4SiO4, H4P2O7 etc.).
There are two types of acids depending on their chemical composition: Oxyacids - contain Oxygen (the most of acids - H2CO3, H2SiO3, HNO3, H3PO4, H2SO3, H2SO4, HClO4 etc.) and Oxygen-free acids (HF, HCl, HBr, HI, H2S, H2Se, HCN, HSCN etc.).
Oxyacids are hydrated forms of acidic oxides (anhydrides). The most of such oxides may react with water directly forming hydrates - acids. For example, Sulfuric acid is a hydrate of Sulfur (VI) oxide.
The total characteristics of the usual acids are presented in Appendix 4.
Preparation
1. Oxygen-free acids may be prepared by interaction between corresponding non-metals and free Hydrogen and following dissolution of gaseous products in water:
H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl;
H2 + S = H2S;
2. Oxygen-free acids are synthesized by action of strong acids to corresponding salts of Oxygen-free acids:
CaF2 + H2SO4 = CaSO4 + 2HF;
FeS + 2HCl = FeCl2 + H2S;
3. Interaction of acidic oxides (anhydrides) with water:
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4;
Cl2O7 + H2O = 2HClO4;
4. If anhydrides do not react with water directly, the corresponding acids may be prepared by action of strong acids to responding soluble salt of needed acid:
H2SO4 + Na2SiO3 = Na2SO4 + H2SiO3;
2HCl + Na2WO4 = 2NaCl + H2WO4.