- •Introduction
- •Chapter # 1. The foundations of atomic-molecular studies. The laws and concepts of stoichiometry
- •Vocabulary
- •Subject and Tasks of Chemistry
- •General notions of atomic-molecular studies
- •Number of atoms of an element
- •Example of solution
- •Amount of substance. Mole. Avogadro’s Number. Molar mass
- •Number of moles of an element
- •Mass of an element (grams)
- •X Molar mass of element (Mm)
- •4. The laws and concepts of Stoichiometry
- •5. Types of chemical reactions
- •Chapter # 2. Atomic structure
- •Vocabulary
- •General notions
- •Theories of atomic structure
- •Figure 3. Spatial orientation of p-orbitals
- •3. Principles for distribution of electrons in atoms Distributions of electrons in atoms on energy levels and sub-levels may be presented in the form of electronic formulas.
- •Ground state
- •4. Valency and Oxidation number as function of electrons distribution
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 3. The periodic law and periodic table of chemical elements
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Formulation
- •2. Physical meaning of the chemical periodicity
- •3. The Periodic Table
- •Periodical table of chemical elements named by d.I. Mendeleev
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 4. Chemical bonding
- •Vocabulary
- •Types of Chemical Bonds
- •Ionic bond
- •Nonpolar-covalent bond
- •P olar-covalent bond
- •Figure 10. Formation of Hydrogen Bonds between water molecules
- •Figure 11. Depending of boiling-points (b.Pt) of double Hydrogen-contained compounds from nature of the second atom and presence of Hydrogen bonding
- •Why does Chemical Bond occur?
- •Practice problems
- •Сhapter # 5. Laboratory glassware, labware and rules of laboratory research
- •Vocabulary
- •Chemical glassware
- •2. Chemical reagents and their storage
- •3. Elementary operations carrying out
- •4. Safety rules during carrying out laboratory works
- •5. Rules for reagents and equipment use
- •6. Rules for work carrying out and results design
- •Chapter # 6. The main classes of inorganic compounds
- •Vocabulary
- •Classification of inorganic substances
- •Inorganic substances
- •Compounds
- •2. Relation between main classes of inorganic substances
- •3. Oxides
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •4. Bases
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •5. Acids
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Amphoteric hydroxides
- •Preparation
- •7. Salts
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Thermal decomposition with medium salts formation:
- •Structural-graphic formulas of chemical compounds
- •Example of solution
- •Chapter # 7. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •Vocabulary
- •Solutions
- •Concentration of solutions
- •Molarity (molar concentration)
- •Theory of dissociation
- •Degree of dissociation
- •Main classes of inorganic substances from viewpoint of theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •6. Ionic equations
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 8. Ionic product of water. Hydrolysis of salts
- •Vocabulary
- •Ionic product of water. Notion of pH
- •General notion of Hydrolysis
- •Different types of Hydrolysis
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Identification of reaction medium in solutions of salts
- •Experiment 2. Influence of temperature to hydrolysis
- •Chapter # 9. Oxidation-reduction reactions
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Oxidation of Elements
- •2. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •3. Compiling Equations of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •4. Most Important Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- •Types of Redox Reactions
- •Influence of Medium to Redox Reactions
- •Electromotive Series of Metals
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Reducing properties of metal ions of lower oxidation number
- •Chapter # 10. Complex (coordination) compounds
- •2. Nomenclature
- •3. Rules for naming of coordination compounds
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 11. The halogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •2. Chlorine
- •Laboratory training
- •Experiment 2. Halogens oxidative activity in free state
- •Experiment 5. The salts of hydrohalogen acids insoluble in water
- •Chapter # 12. The chalcogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Oxygen
- •3. Sulfur
- •Experiment 6. Dilution of concentrated Sulfuric acid
- •Experiment 9. Instability of thiosulfuric acid
- •Chapter # 13. Nitrogen, phosphorus
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Nitrogen
- •3. Phosphorus
- •Phosphorus behaves as the typical non-metal. It reacts with Oxygen, formed acid oxides:
- •Experiment 2. Oxidation and reducing power of nitrous acid and Nitrites
- •Chapter # 14. Chemistry of main biometals
- •Vocabulary
- •1. The Alkali Metals
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Other bioactive metals
Preparation
There are known a lot of methods for salts’ preparations. The typical ones are mentioned below:
Interaction between metals and non-metals (Sulfur, Halogens):
Zn + S = ZnS
2Bi + 3Cl2 = 2BiCl3;
Interaction between salts and metals (according to relative activity of Metals, see Appendix 11):
CuSO4 + Fe = FeSO4 + Cu;
Pb(NO3)2 + Zn = Zn(NO3)2 + Pb;
Interaction between some salts and non-metals:
2FeCl2 + Cl2 = 2FeCl3;
2Na2SO3 + O2 = 2Na2SO4;
Interaction between basic oxides and acidic oxides:
CaO + CO2 = CaCO3;
3Na2O + P2O5 = 2Na3PO4;
Interaction between acids and basic oxides:
H2SO4 + MgO = MgSO4 + H2O;
6HCl + Fe2O3 = 2FeCl3 + 3H2O;
Interaction between bases and acidic oxides:
Ba(OH)2 + SO2 = BaSO3 + H2O;
2Fe(OH)3 + 3N2O5 = 2Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O;
Interaction between acids and bases:
HNO3 + NaOH = NaNO3 + H2O;
H3PO4 + 3KOH = K3PO4 + 3H2O;
Interaction between stronger acids and salts of weaker acids:
H2SO4 + K2SiO3 = K2SO4 + H2SiO3;
HBr + AgNO3 = AgBr + HNO3;
Interaction between alkalis and salts:
2LiOH + CuCl2 = Cu(OH)2 + 2LiCl;
Ca(OH)2 + NiSO4 = CaSO4 + Ni(OH)2;
Interaction between two different salts (metathesis reaction):
2AgNO3 + CaI2 = 2AgI + Ca(NO3)2;
Cr2(SO4)3 + 3BaCl2 = 2CrCl3 + 3BaSO4.
Chemical properties
Interaction with some of the acids with the formation of other salt and acid:
BaCl2 + H2SO4 = BaSO4 + 2HCl;
Na2S + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + H2S;
Interaction with alkalis with the formation of other salt and base:
NiSO4 + 2KOH = Ni(OH)2 + K2SO4;
2FeCl3 + 3Ba(OH)2 = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3BaCl2;
Interaction with more active metals:
Zn + CuSO4 = ZnSO4 + Cu;
Cu + Hg(NO3)2 = Cu(NO3)2 + Hg;
Some salts may react with each other forming two new salts:
Ba(NO3)2 + K2CO3 = BaCO3 + 2KNO3;AlCl3 + 3AgNO3 = Al(NO3)3 + 3AgCl.
Basic salts
Basic salts may form only such bases that have two and more groups OH-. They are products of incomplete substitution of OH--groups of corresponding bases to acid residues.
Preparation
1. Hydrolysis of neutral salts formed by weak base and strong acid:
ZnCl2 + HOH ↔ ZnOHCl + HCl;
2 CuSO4 + 2 HOH ↔ (CuOH)2SO4 + H2SO4.
2. By addition (by drops) of small quantities of alkalis to solutions of neutral salts of metals:
AlCl3 + 2NaOH = Al(OH)2Cl + 2NaCl;
Ca(NO3)2 + NaOH = CaOHNO3 + NaNO3.
3. Interaction with salts formed weak acids with medium salts:
2MgCl2 + 2Na2CO3 + H2O = (MgOH)2CO3↓ + CO2↑ + 4NaCl;
2CuSO4 +2(NH4)2SO3+H2O= CuOH)2SO3↓+SO2↑+(NH4)2SO4.
4. In a few cases by interaction of neutral salts with bases of the same name:
CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2Ca(OH)Cl;
Ba(NO3)2 + Ba(OH)2 = 2BaOHNO3.
Chemical properties
1. Interaction with acids or acidic oxides forming neutral salts and water (likewise bases):
2Mg(OH)NO3 + N2O5 = 2Mg(NO3)2 + H2O;
Mg(OH)NO3 + HNO3 = Mg(NO3)2 + H2O.
2. Thermal decomposition:
(CuOH)2CO3 2 CuO + CO2 + H2O;
2 CaOHCl CaCl2 + H2O + CaO.
3. Some salts may (weaken) loose water with the formation of so-called oxysalts with time or on heating:
Bi(OH)2Br BiOBr + H2O.
Acidic salts
Acid salts are the products of partial replacement of Hydrogen in acids for atoms of metals or ionic groups. Acid salts may form only such acids that have two and more atoms of Hydrogen.
Preparation
1. Interaction of acid with the deficit of base:
NaOH + H2SO4 = NaHSO4 +H2O;
2. Interaction of bases with acid oxides in large excess:
Ca(OH)2 + 2 CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2;
3. Interaction of medium salts with acid (more with the same anion):
Ca3(PO4)2 +4H3PO4 = 3 Ca(H2PO4)2.
Chemical properties
Interaction with basic oxides with forming of neutral salts and water:
2NaHSO4 + Na2O = 2Na2SO4 + H2O;
Interaction with amphoteric oxides with forming of neutral salts and water:
Zn(HSO4)2 + ZnO = 2ZnSO4 + H2O;
Interaction with bases with forming of neutral salts and water:
NaHSO4 + NaOH = Na2SO4 + H2O;
Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2 Ca(OH)2 = Ca3(PO4)2↓ + 3 H2O.
Interaction with amphoteric hydroxides with forming of salts and water:
Zn(HSO4)2 + Zn(OH)2 = 2ZnSO4 + 2H2O;
Interaction with active metals with forming of neutral salts and free Hydrogen isolation:
2NaHSO4 + 2Na = Na2SO4 + H2↑