Infinitive without to

We use the infinitive without to after modal verbs can,could, may, might, will, shall, would, should, must:

She can sleep in the guest room tonight.

Will you need to rent a car during your stay?

We also use the infinitive without to after let, make and (optionally) help:

He lets us use some of his land to grow vegetables.

You can’t make a cat do anything it doesn’t want to do.

I just want to help you (to) understand the situation better.

• We don’t use the to-infinitive after modal verbs:

We might buy a new sofa.

Not: We might to buy a new sofa.

• We don’t use the infinitive (with or without to) after prepositions:

Lemon juice is useful for cleaning stained surfaces in the kitchen.

Not: … is useful for clean … or … for to clean …

Infinitive clause

 1) The infinitive clause is used after some verbs such as want and like

Want/like +noun or pronoun + to -infinitive

 I want her to come

(Not I want that she comes!)

 I would like Jane to work better!

(Not I would like that Jane works better)

Notice:

 

 

2) The infinitive clause is also used after verbs such as : ask, expect, hate, need, order, prefer , wait for

 I expect her to phone me                            

 I need someone to help me                        

 I am waiting for Mike to come back          

  Notice:

 I can’t wait for the holidays                         

I can’t wait to see him again                      

Exercise: Choose the correct form (infinitive with or without to).

1. I can   English.

2. We have   our home work.

3. You must   at home.

4. I will   you.

5. He cannot   us.

6. My little sister learns  .

7. They want   to the cinema.

8. You should   your parents.

9. I'd like   a dog.

10. May we   in?

Listening

Listen to a conversation.

Now answer the following questions. You may use your notes to help you. 1). How long has the young man been drinking alcohol?

 (A) Since he entered university.

 (B) Since his birthday.

 (C) Every weekend.

 (D) One or two years.

2). What can be said about the young man's drinking habits?

 (A) He drinks less now.

 (B) He drinks more now.

 (C) He drinks the same now.

 (D) He doesn't drink now.

3). What is the purpose of this conversation?

 (A) To acquire research data

 (B) To judge students' attitude to their education

 (C) To measure drinking in campus

 (D) To warn students against alcoholism

4). What will the young man probably do in the near future?

 (A) Try to stop drinking alcohol

 (B) Contact the young woman

 (C) Review his study habits

 (D) Try to improve his GPA

Listen again to part of the passage and answer the following question.

5). Why does the young man say this: "Oh, um...it's hard to say...."?

 (A) He is embarrassed about his drinking.

 (B) He is unsure how to express his drinking habits.

 (C) He thinks it's wrong to drink alcohol.

 (D) He is unwilling that the young woman should know his drinking habits.

Reading the text: Maladies of the 21st Century

We entered the 21st century with such maladies as heart and vascular system diseases, environmental diseases, cancer, AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). The risk factors causing these diseases are poor environment (especially after Chernobyl disaster), constant stress and bad habits. We witness more and more cases when people suffer from such environmental diseases as food allergies, chronic fatigue syndrome, asthma, thyroid gland. They all have a huge impact on the quality of life, darken our prospects for future. Alcohol, drugs, smoking, AIDS have also become the reality of our life, especially among young and middle-aged people. Today we'll read the texts about the diseases which have come as a result of people's ignorance and lack of healthy habits.

Smoking is very danger­ous. Most young people smoke because their friends pressure them to do so. They may be copying their parents who smoke, or other adults they respect. At one time this would have been accepted as normal. But in the past 30 years attitudes about smoking have changes. Smoking is now banned in many places so that other people don't have to breathe in smokers' shocking tobacco smoke.

Passive smoking, when you are breathing someone else smoke, can damage your health just like smoking can. Smoking becomes addictive very quickly, and it's one of the hardest habits to break.

Take 1000 young people who smoke 20 cigarettes a day. A quarter of them will die from a disease caused by smoking. That's 250 lives wasted! Only six of those 1000 teenagers will die in road accidents. So what is it in cigarette smoke that is harmful? Chemical called nicotine is a substance that causes addiction. It is a stimulant that increases the pulse rate and a rise in the blood-pressure. Cigarette smoke also contains tar - a major factor for causing cancer.

Chronic bronchitis occurs when tar and mucus damage the air sacks in the lungs. The sufferer has a bad cough which is worse in the mornings, and may get breathless easily.

Gases in cigarette smoke increase your blood pressure and pulse rate. This can contribute to heart disease. Smokers as twice as non-smokers are likely to have heart trouble.

Smokeless tobacco that is chewed rather than smoked is also harmful, causing mouth sores, damage to teeth and cancer.If you've ever watched an adult try to give up smoking, you know how hard it can be. It's easier, healthier and cheaper never to start.

Another poison of many young people is alcohol. Remember, alcohol is a drug. It can make you sick, and you can become addicted to it. It's a very common form of drug abuse among teenagers. Don't let anyone at a party pressure you into drinking if you don't want to, especially if you're legally under age.

For years we have been told not to drive after we have drunk alcohol, which weakens our sense and clouds our judgment. And yet people still do. Young people, who are drunk are less likely to wear their seat belts, and are less experienced when a problem occurs. The alcohol makes them think they are brilliant drivers and can take risks without getting hurt. But, more importantly, they become a risk to other drivers and pedestrians - potential killers. If they do have an accident, the alcohol in their body will make treatment of an injury more difficult.

Alcohol drinks are made up chiefly of water and ethanol, which is an alcohol produced by fermenting fruits, vegetables or grain. Beer is about one part ethanol to 20 parts water. Wine is stronger, and spirits are about half ethanol and half water.

Alcohol is a drug. In fact, it is a mild poison. It is absorbed quickly into the bloodstream, within four or 10 minutes of being drunk. Absorption is slower if there's food in the stomach. Once inside the body it passes through the bloodstream to the liver, where poisons are digested.

But the liver can only process 28 grams of pure alcohol each hour.

This is a small amount - just over half a glass of beer. Anything else you drink is pumped round the body while it waits its turn to enter the liver.

When alcohol reaches your brain, you may immediately feel more relaxed and light-hearted. You may feel you can do crazy things. But after two or three drinks, your actions are clumsy and your speech is slurred. If you over-drink, you might suffer from double vision and loss of balance, even fall unconscious, hangover.

In facts, all medicines are drugs. You take drugs for your headache or your asthma. But you need to remember that not all drugs are medicines. Alcohol is a drug, and nicotine is a drug. There are many drugs that do you no good at all.

There's nothing wrong with medicinal drugs if they're used properly. The trouble is, some people use them wrongly and make themselves ill. Most of the drugs are illegal, but some are ordinary medical substances that people use in the wrong way.

People take drugs because they think they make them feel better. Young people are often introduced to drug-taking by their friends.

Many users take drugs to escape from a life that may seem too hard to bear. Drugs may seem the only answer, but they are no answer at all. They simply make the problem worse.

Depending on the type and strength of the drug, all drug-abusers are in danger of developing side effects. Drugs can bring on confusion and frightening hallucinations and cause unbalan­ced emotions or more serious mental disorders.

First-time heroin users are sometimes violently sick. Cocaine, even in small amounts, can cause sudden death in some young people, due to heartbeat irregula­rities. Children born to drug-addicted parents can be badly affected.

People who start taking drugs are unlikely to do so for long without being found out. Symptoms of even light drug use are drowsiness, moodiness, loss of appetite and, almost inevitably, a high level of deceit.

First there's the evidence to hide, but second, drugs are expensive and few young people are able to find the money they need from their allowance alone. Almost inevitably, needing money to pay for drugs leads to crime.

AIDS is a sickness that attacks the body's natural system against disease. AIDS itself doesn't kill, but because the body's defense system is damaged, the patient has a reduced ability to fight off many other diseases, including flu or the common cold.

It has been reported that about 10 million people worldwide may have been infected by the virus that causes AIDS. It is estimated that about 350 thousand people have the disease and that another million (!) may get it within the next five years. Africa and South America are the continents where AIDS is most rampant, although in the States alone about 50,000 people have already died of AIDS.

So far there is no cure for AIDS. We know that AIDS is caused by a virus which invades healthy cells, including the white blood cells that are part of our defense system; the virus takes control of the healthy cells genetic material and forces the cell to make a copy of the virus. The cell then dies and the multiplied virus moves on to invade and kill other healthy cells.

The AIDS virus can be passed on sexually or by sharing needles used to inject drugs. It also can be passed in blood products or from a pregnant woman with AIDS to her baby.

Many stories about the spread of AIDS are false. One cannot get AIDS by working with someone who's got it or by going to the same school, or by touching objects belonging to or touched by an infected person. Nobody caring for an AIDS patient has developed AIDS and, since there is no cure for it at present, be as helpful and understanding as possible to those suffering from this terrible disease.

Answer the question:

1. Is smoking banned in Kazakhstan? 2. Is passive smoking dangerous? 3. What is nicotine? 4. Can alcohol make you seek? 5. What does a term “potential killer” mean? 6. All medicines are drugs, aren’t they? 7. Why do people take drugs? 8. What does the AIDS virus attack? 9. Does AIDS kill people? 10. Which continents are most "infected"? 11. Would you be friend a person infected with AIDS?

Say true or false

1. AIDS itself doesn’t kill. 2. Africa and South America are the continents where AIDS is most rampant. 3. There is a cure for AIDS. 4. We don’t know what cells AIDS can invade. 5. The AIDS virus can’t be passed on sexually. 6. It can be passed in blood products or from a pregnant woman with AIDS to her baby. 7. One cannot get AIDS by touching objects belongingto or touched by an infectedperson.

What would you say your close friendif you find out that HE/SHE…a) smokes; b) takes drugs; c) is alcohol addicted; d) infected with AIDS? Make short dialogues in pairs.

Speaking

Discuss these questions.

• Would you like to try of these ways of keeping fit? Why?

• Do you know of any other unusual ways of keeping fit?

Look at the photos below of three sportspeople. Can you guess who:

a has a big lunch (with lots of beer) and then goes to sleep for a few hours?

b. doesn’t eat very much?

c. runs 8 km at least four times a week?

d. trains for eight hours every day?

e. usually trains before breakfast?

f. weighs about 40 kg?

g. weighs about 175 kg?

h. is 1,5 tall?

i. is 1,95 m tall?

j. earns about $50, 000 a week?

k. receives money from his/her parents every month?

WRITING

Among the newer emerging infectious agents and diseases, many have already had great impact, while others show potential for impact in the near future. Agents that have made a significant appearance, particularly in the 21st century. These agents include: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fevers, human monkypox, BSE, SARS, West Nile virus, and avian influenza. What kind of disease can we name “disease of the century”?

Tasks for self-study

Read the text and write a brief summary of this text. Retell it.

Doctors can now tell us which habits may extend our lives - and just how much extra time they give us.

New research shows exactly how many years longer people can live by adopting healthy behaviours - from stopping smoking and losing weight to eating less meat and being positive.

Studies have suggested that dark chocolate is good for the heart and may boost longevity. Research based on Harvard graduates showed that people who eat chocolate lived a year or so longer than those who do not.Those who ate one to three bars a month came out best with a 36 per cent lower risk of premature death.

Antioxidants, especially in dark chocolate, may be responsible. Diets with low levels of meat and vegetarian diets have been linked to lower risk of premature death. A review of research by public health specialists at Loma Linda University in America looked at the life expectancy of those who rarely ate meat and found that sticking to such a diet added 3.6 years to a person's life. The health effect may be due to lower saturated fat intake and higher antioxidant levels as a consequence of eating more fruit and vegetables.

Moderate to high levels of activity can extend life by between 1.3 and 3.7 years. Researchers at Erasmus University in the Netherlands say the main reason is the beneficial effect that physical activity has on the heart.

People who take exercise are also less likely to be overweight and more likely to have a better quality of life. Highly educated women can expect to live more than five years longer than less-educated women, while men with a university degree have an extra 7-8 years, according to a Harvard University study. One explanation is the adoption of healthier lifestyles, and one of the biggest differences was in heart disease rates. 

Research at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden shows that golfers live five years longer. The study shows a 40 per cent reduced risk of a premature end. The health benefits of exercise and companionship may be the reason. Losing weight can add as much as seven years to a person's life. A team at Oxford University showed that people who are obese at the age of 40 died, on average, seven years earlier.

Not smoking adds up to 10 years to life. A team at the University of Helsinki found that those who had never smoked lived an average 10 years longer than those who smoked more than 20 a day. Research on men in New Zealand showed that 50 per cent of smokers die prematurely, and that they die 14 years earlier than non-smokers. Heart disease and cancer are among the biggest killers. The good news for smokers is that it is never too late to give up. According to the US National Institute on Drug Abuse a 35-year-old man who quits smoking will increase his life expectancy by 5.1 years on average.  According to a Chicago University report, married men live, on average, 10 years longer than non-married men, while married women live about four years longer than non-married women. One theory is that married men adopt less risky and more healthy lifestyles as a result of the commitment that marriage brings. Married women may live longer due to improved financial wellbeing. However, one Swiss study found that being married shortens a woman's life by 1.4 years, possibly because of the stress of living with a man. Wealthy people live longer than the poor. One of the clearest contrasts was found by Baltimore health officials in the US. In the poor neighbor hoods, the average life expectancy was 63 years, against 83 in wealthy suburbs. Words in the text

longevity

living for a long time

premature

happening too soon

life expectancy

how long you are likely to live

over weight

having more body weight than normal

obese

extremely fat

wellbeing

the state of feeling happy and healthy

wealthy

A person who is wealthy has a lot of money

neighbourhoods

the area of a town or city where you live

Complete the lifestyle expressions from the text. Click on the gaps to display the answers.

s          ?           to a healthy diet a          ?           a healthier lifestyle q          ?           smoking b          ?           positive l          ?           weight t          ?           exercise g          ?           married

Functions in the text

Explaining and speculating

Look at the following sentences from the text and study how the expressions in bold are used to explain and speculate:

Antioxidants, especially in dark chocolate, may be responsible.The health effect may be due to lower saturated fat intake and higher antioxidant levels as a consequence of eating more fruit and vegetables.

Researchers at Erasmus University in the Netherlands say the main reason is the beneficial effect that physical activity has on the heart. One explanation is the adoption of healthier lifestyles, and one of the biggest differences was in heart disease rates.

The health benefits of exercise and companionship may be the reason. One theory is that married men adopt less risky and more healthy lifestyles as a result of the commitment that marriage brings. Married women may live longer due to improved financial wellbeing. However, one Swiss study found that being marriage shortens a woman's life by 1.4 years, possibly because of the stress of living with a man.

Now complete the sentences below using the expressions above:

Research shows that older adults perform better at university than younger adults. O…e… that older people tend to have more motivation because they have had to experience life's difficulties.

Road accidents tend to happen more often on Fridays than other days. This m… be d… to end-of-week tiredness and heavy traffic.

Sharks do not often eat the humans that they attack. One th…is that the human body does not provide the high-energy fat that sharks need.

Many people lose their memories when they get older. The loss of "synapses" or connections between brain cells may be r….The average sea level around the world is rising. The m… r… is global warming.

Mark's computer has been operating very slowly recently, p… b… of a virus.

Some people are obese despite not eating too much. Genetic factors may be the r…

James failed his driving test d… to poor preparation.

The economy is doing badly this year as a c… of the financial crisis.  

Module 2 Unit 4

HUMAN RIGHTS: HISTORY AND PROTECTION

GRAMMAR

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who*, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them. Here are some examples:

• Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last week?

• Can I have the pencil that I gave you this morning?

• A notebook is a computer which can be carried around.

• I won't eat in a restaurant whose cooks smoke.

• I want to live in a place where there is lots to do.

• Yesterday was a day when everything went wrong!

* There is a relative pronoun whom, which can be used as the object of the relative clause. For example: My science teacher is a person whom I like very much. To many people the word whom now sounds old-fashioned, and it is rarely used in spoken English.

Relative pronouns are associated as follows with their preceding noun:

Preceding noun	Relative pronoun	Examples
a person	who(m)/that, whose	- Do you know the girl who.. - He was a man that… - An orphan is a child whose parents ..
a thing	which†/that, whose	- Do you have a computer which .. - The oak a tree that .. - This is a book whose author ..

Note 1: The relative pronoun whose is used in place of the possessive pronoun. It must be followed by a noun. Example: There's a boy in grade 8 whose father is a professional tennis player. (There's a boy in grade 8. His father is a professional tennis player.)

Note 2: The relative pronouns where and when are used with place and time nouns. Examples: FIS is a school where children from more than 50 countries are educated. 2001 was the year when terrorists attacked the Twin Towers in New York.

Some relative clauses are not used to define or identify the preceding noun but to give extra information about it. Here are some examples:

• My ESL teacher, who came to Germany in 1986, likes to ride his mountain bike.

• The heavy rain, which was unusual for the time of year, destroyed most of the plants in my garden.

• Einstein, who was born in Germany, is famous for his theory of relativity.

• The boy, whose parents both work as teachers at the school, started a fire in the classroom.

• My mother's company, which makes mobile phones, is moving soon from Frankfurt to London.

• In the summer I'm going to visit Italy, where my brother lives.

Note 1: Relative clauses which give extra information, as in the example sentences above, must be separated off by commas.

Note 2: The relative pronoun that cannot be used to introduce an extra-information (non-defining) clause about a person. Wrong: Neil Armstrong that was born in 1930 was the first man to stand on the moon. Correct: Neil Armstrong, who was born in 1930, was the first man to stand on the moon.

There are two common occasions, particularly in spoken English, when the relative pronoun is omitted:

1. When the pronoun is the object of the relative clause. In the following sentences the pronoun that can be left out is enclosed in (brackets):

• Do you know the girl (who/m) he's talking to?

• Where's the pencil (which) I gave you yesterday?

• I haven't read any of the books (that) I got for Christmas.

• I didn't like that girl (that) you brought to the party.

• Did you find the money (which) you lost?

Note: You cannot omit the relative pronoun a.) if it starts a non-defining relative clause, or, b.) if it is the subject of a defining relative clause. For example, who is necessary in the following sentence: What's the name of the girl who won the tennis tournament?

2. When the relative clause contains a present or past participle and the auxiliary verb to be. In such cases both relative pronoun and auxiliary can be left out:

• Who's that man (who is) standing by the gate?

• The family (that is) living in the next house comes from Slovenia.

• She was wearing a dress (which was) covered in blue flowers.

• Most of the parents (who were) invited to the conference did not come.

• Anyone (that is) caught writing on the walls will be expelled from school.

EXERCISES

Exercise 1: 

Fill in: who, whose, which or where.

My school, 1) __________ is called King Edward's, has about 2,000 students. My favourite teacher, 2)__________ is called Mr Brown, teaches sport. The sports centre, 3)____________ I play basketball and tennis, is the largest in the area. I walk to school every day with my friend Mike, 4)____________ father teaches History.

Exercise 2:

Make sentences as in the example. Use relative pronouns or relative adverbs.

Example: A painter is someone who paints pictures.

• builder / someone / build houses • elephant / animal / ears are big

• circus / place / can see acrobats

• tiger / animal / live in jungle

• supermarket / place / do shopping

Exercise 3 :

Fill in: who's or whose.

1 My mother,_________ name is Elizabeth, is a piano teacher.

2 She's the woman ________________married to an actor.

3 Celine is the girl ______________brother won the prize.

4 Helen is the person ______________car is outside our house.

5 Ann's the one________________ a History teacher.

6 Lucas is the man ______________helping us move house.

7 That's the woman _____________son just graduated from university.

8 . ______________concert did you go to?

Exercise 4: 

Fill in the correct relative pronoun. What part of sentence is each, subject or object? Write S for subject and О for object, then state if the relatives can be omitted or not in the box provided.

1	Did you see the man __________stole her bag?		S	not omitted
2	The dress__________ Mary bought yesterday is too big.
3	Please give me the keys______	are on the table.
4	Is that the man ______________we saw in the park yesterday?
5	What's the name of the lady_____	babysits your little sister?
6	Klaus is playing with the dog____	lives next door.
7	Have you eaten all the cakes_____	I made yesterday?
8	How old is the man___________	owns that shop?
9	Have you met the man_________	Jackie is going to marry?
10	Let's all look at the picture______	is on page 7.
11	Has Peter returned the money____	he borrowed from you?
12	What colour is the dress ______	you're going to wear tonight?

SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX

Sentences can be combined in different ways. For journalists, the most common combinations are simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences:

1. Simple Sentence: One (subject + predicate)

   • Twenty Freeport citizens protested the ban against smoking.

2. Compound Sentence: Two complete sentences joined by a comma + coordinate conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, because, etc.)

   • Twenty Freeport citizens protested the smoking ban, but the newspaper failed to cover the story.

3. Complex Sentences: One complete sentence (also known as an independent or main clause) + 1 subordinate (or dependent) clause (missing either a subject or a predicate; or introduced by a conjunctive adverb — although, however, moreover, etc.)

   • Although 20 Freeport citizens protested the smoking ban, the newspaperfailed to cover the story.

EXERCISE

State which of the following sentences are compound and which are complex?

1. The house was destroyed in the fire, but the whole family was saved.

2. Walking through the wood, he saw a fox that was following him.

3. If I do not get this job, I will start a business.

4. He said that he was so disappointed that he would not try again.

5. The men who rule the world with their pens are mightier than those who rule the world with their swords.

6. The evil that men do lives after them.

7. All that glitters is not gold.

8. Neither the color nor the design of this cloth appeals to me.

LISTENING

Listen and fill in the gaps.

I think human rights only became _______________________ World War II. That’s when the United Nations _______________________ Universal Declaration on human rights. This is kind of the rulebook, the _______________________ of human rights. When I look at the world today, it seems not many people have read this. I doubt if most people _______________________. I think government leaders _______________________ about this. A lot of them _______________________ about human rights. I can’t believe it’s the twenty-first century and human rights _______________________ issue in pretty much all of the world’s countries. The most powerful countries even attack _______________________ for abusing human rights. I hope _______________________ all human rights are respected.That will _______________________.

Answer the questions.

1. When did the human rights become essential?

2. When was the Universal Declaration issued?

3. What countries are involved in the matter of human rights protection?

READING

Read the text. Using the ideas from the text answer the questions

Human rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees international human rights. The United Nations General Assembly passed this document in 1948.

There are some international organizations that are involved in the issues of protecting human rights. International concern for human rights has been evident outside of the United Nations. The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, which met in Helsinki in 1973-75, produced the Helsinki Final Act. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which first met in 1950, produced the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Social Charter; the Ninth Pan-American Conference of 1948 adopted the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man; and the Organization of African Unity in 1981 adopted the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. There are also a number of private groups involved in human-rights advocacy. One of the best-known international human rights agencies is Amnesty International (founded in 1961). This organization is responsible for broad casting violations of human rights, especially freedoms of speech and religion and the right of political dissent.

Human rights belong to an individual as a consequence of being human. They refer to a wide range of values that are universal for all human beings. The origins of the concept of human rights are traced to the Greco-Roman natural-law doctrines of stoicism. According to the doctrines a universal force penetrates all creation and that human conduct should therefore be judged ac cording to the law of nature, and in the "law of nations", in which certain universal rights were extended beyond the rights of Roman citizenship. From the Renaissance until the 17th century the beliefs and practices of society so changed that the idea of human (or natural) rights took hold as a general social need and reality. The modernist conception of natural law (natural rights) was elaborated in the 17th and 18th centuries. The struggle against political absolutism in the late 18th and the 19th centuries further advanced the concept of human rights. In the 20th century the notion of human rights achieved universal acceptance.

The right to life and liberty are the basic human rights. They are proclaimed in the Covenant on Civil and Political rights and its optional protocol. One of the most vital rights granted in this Covenant is the right of people to self-determination. This document guarantees such rights as personal security, equality before the law, fair trial, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion and expression, peaceful assembly, right to marry, participation in public affairs and elections, and minority rights. Propaganda of war is prohibited. The right to security and privacy of person is very important too. The document insures fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.

People also have social guarantees that are set forth in the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural life. This document deals with the right to work, the conditions of work, trade unions, social security, protection of the family, standards of living and health, education and cultural life. The European Commission of Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights provided the most effective means for the implementation of the protection of human rights. The efforts of government in this area should be guided by these two Covenants.

Questions:

1. What document guarantees international human rights?

2. What international organizations are responsible for protecting human rights?

3. When was the notion of human right worked out?

4. What are the basic human rights?

5. Do people have any social guarantees?

SPEAKING

LUCKY?

In pairs / groups, talk about the human rights listed below (one of them is not an official right!). Discuss what life would be like without these rights. Put the main points in the middle column. Discuss what your life is like having been afforded these rights. Summarize your thoughts in the right hand column.

RIGHT	LIFE WITHOUT	LIFE WITH
The freedom to travel and hold a passport.
Not being subjected to torture.
The freedom to study English.
Being equal before the law without any discrimination.
The right to rest and leisure.
The right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

• Change partners and explain what you discussed.

• Talk about how (un)lucky you are to (not) enjoy basic human rights.

WRITING AN ESSAY

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are considered entitled: the right to life, liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equal treatment before the law, among others. What should we do to protect human rights in our country and in the world?

To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

You should write at least 250 words.

TASK FOR SELF-STUDY

READING

Read the text and answer the questions.