Protection of the ozone layer

Concern about the depletion of the ozone layer has had a marked effect on the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are used in refrigerators and aerosols but are a major con­tributor to the breakdown of the ozone layer, allowing harmful radiation to pass through it. The Montreal Protocol Conference in 1990 ruled that the production of CFCs should be completely phased out by 2000, though this target was not achieved.

Animal testing of new products

To reduce the risk of them being harmful to humans, potential new products such as shampoos and cosmetics are tested on animals before launch. This has aroused much opposition. One of the major concepts underlining the initial success of UK retailer the Body Shop was that its products were not subject to animal testing. This is an example of the Body Shop's ethical approach to business, which also extends to its suppliers. Other larger stores, responding to Body Shop's success, have introduced their own range of animal-friendly products.

Pollution

The quality of the physical environment can be harmed by the manufacture, use and disposal of products. The production of chemicals that pollute the atmosphere, the use of nitrates in fertilizer that pollutes rivers, and the disposal of by-products into the sea have caused considerable public concern. In recent years, the introduction of lead-free petrol and catalytic converters has reduced the level of harmful exhaust emissions. Denmark has introduced a series of anti-pollution measures including a charge on pesticides and a CFC tax. In The Netherlands, higher taxes on pesticides, fertilizers and carbon monoxide emissions are proposed. Not all of the activity is simply cost raising, however. In the former West Germany, one of the marketing benefits of its involvement in Green technology has been a thriving export business in pollution-control equipment.

Consumer groups can exert enormous pressure on companies by influencing public opinion. For example, environmentalist protests convinced Shell to abandon its plans to dump its obsolete North Sea oil installation, Brent Spa, at sea. Environmentalists are a key component of the wider movement that monitors business practices and generates pressure for change.

Energy conservation

Recognition of the finite nature of the world's energy resources has stimulated a drive to conserve energy. This is reflected in the demand for energy-efficient housing and fuel-efficient motor cars, for example. In Europe, Sweden has taken the lead in developing an energy policy based on domestic and renewable resources. The tax system penalizes the use of polluting energy sources like coal and oil, while less polluting and domestic sources such as peat and woodchip receive favourable tax treatment. In addition, nuclear power is to be phased out by 2010. More efficient use of energy and the development of energy-efficient products (backed by an energy technology fund) will compensate for the shortfall in nuclear energy capacity.

2.1 e-Marketing