Influences on consumer behaviour
As noted above (in the discussion of the evaluation of alternatives), not all decisions follow the same decision-making process; nor do all decisions involve the same buying centre or use identical choice criteria. The following is a discussion of the major influences on the process, buying centre and choice criteria in consumer behaviour. They are classified into three groups: the buying situation, personal influences and social influences (see Fig.3.3). Later, we will look at the major influences on organizational buyer behaviour.
The buying situation
There are three kinds of buying situation: extended problem solving, limited problem solving and habitual problem solving.
The first of these, extended problem solving, involves a high degree of information search, as well as close examination of the alternative solutions using many choice criteria. It is commonly seen in the purchase of cars, video and audio equipment, houses and expensive clothing, where it is important to make the right choice. Information search and evaluation may focus not only on which brand/model to buy, but also on where to make the purchase. The potential for cognitive dissonance is greatest in this buying situation. Extended problem solving is usually associated with three conditions: the alternatives are differentiated and numerous; there is an adequate amount of time available for deliberation; and the purchase has a high degree of involvement. As we noted earlier, marketers can help in this buying situation by providing information-rich communications via advertising and the salesforce.
A great deal of consumer purchases comes under the mantle of limited problem solving. The consumer has some experience with the product in question so that information search may be mainly internal through memory. However, a certain amount of external search and evaluation may take place (e.g. checking prices) before the purchase is made. This situation provides marketers with some opportunity to affect the purchase by stimulating the need to conduct a search (e.g. advertising) and reducing the risk of brand switching (e.g. warranties).
Habitual problem solving is what happens when a consumer repeat buys a product, while carrying out little or no evaluation of the alternatives. He or she may recall the satisfaction gained by purchasing a brand, and automatically buy it again. Advertising may be effective in keeping the brand name in the consumer's mind and reinforcing already favourable attitudes towards it.
Personal influences
The six personal influences on consumer behaviour are: information processing, motivation, beliefs and attitudes, personality, lifestyle, and life cycle.
Information processing
The term 'information processing' refers to the process by which a stimulus is received, interpreted, stored in memory and later retrieved. It is therefore the link between external influences including marketing activities and the consumer's decision-making process. Two key aspects of information processing are perception and learning.
Perception is the complicated means by which we select, organize and interpret sensory stimulation into a meaningful picture of the world. Three processes may be used to sort, into a manageable amount, the masses of stimuli that could be perceived. These are selective attention, selective distortion and selective retention. Selective attention is the process by which we screen out those stimuli that are neither meaningful to us nor consistent with our experiences and beliefs. It has obvious implications for advertising as studies have shown that consumers consciously attend to only between 5 and 25 per cent of the advertisements to which they are exposed. A number of factors influence attention. We pay more attention to stimuli that contrast with their background than to stimuli that blend in with it. The name Apple Computer is regarded as an attention-grabbing brand name because it contrasts with the technologically orientated names usually associated with computers. The size, colour and movement of a stimulus also affect attention. Position is also critical; objects placed near the centre of the visual range are more likely to be noticed than those on the periphery. This is why there is intense competition to obtain eye-level positions on supermarket shelves. We are also more likely to notice those messages that relate to our needs (benefits sought) and those that provide surprises (for example, substantial price reductions).
When consumers distort the information they receive according to their existing beliefs and attitudes this is known as selective distortion. We may distort information that is not in accord with our existing views. Methods of doing this include thinking that we misheard the message, and discounting the message source. Consequently it is very important to present messages clearly without the possibility of ambiguity and to use a highly credible source. Information framing can affect interpretation. 'Framing' refers to ways in which information is presented to people. Levin and Gaeth asked people co taste minced beef after telling half the sample that it was 70 per cent lean and the other half that it was 30 per cent fat. Despite the fact that the two statements are equivalent, the sample that had the information framed positively (70 per cent lean) recorded higher levels of taste satisfaction. Information framing has obvious implications for advertising and sales messages. The weight of evidence suggests that messages should be positively framed. Colour is another important influence on interpretation. Blue and green are viewed as cool, and evoke feelings of security. Red and yellow are regarded as warm and cheerful. Black is seen as an indication of strength. By using the appropriate colour in pack design it is possible to affect the consumer's feelings about a product.
Selective retention refers to the fact that only a selection of messages maybe retained in memory. We tend to remember messages that are in line with existing beliefs and attitudes. Selective retention has a role to play in reducing cognitive dissonance: when reading reviews of a recently purchased car, positive messages are more likely to be remembered than negative ones.
Learning is the result of information processing; the term refers to any change in the content or organization of long-term memory. There are numerous ways in which learning can take place. These include conditioning and cognitive learning. Classical conditioning is the process of using an established relationship between a stimulus and a response to cause the learning. Thus in advertising, humour that is known to elicit a pleasant response may be used in the belief that these favourable feelings will be a condition of the product. The energy drink Red Bull uses humour in its advertising to appeal to its target market of young adults.
Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in terms of the role and timing of the reinforcement. In this case, reinforcement results from rewards: the more rewarding the response, the stronger the likelihood of the purchase being repeated. Operant conditioning occurs as a result of product trial. The use of free samples is based on the principles of operant conditioning. For example, free samples of a new shampoo are distributed to a large number of households. Because the use of the shampoo is costless it is used (desired response), and because it has desirable properties it is liked (reinforcement) and the likelihood of its being bought is increased. Thus the sequence of events is different for classical and operant conditioning. In the former, by association, liking precedes trial; in the latter, trial precedes liking. A series of rewards (reinforcements) may be used over time to encourage the repeat buying of the product.
The learning of knowledge and the development of beliefs and attitudes without direct reinforcement is referred to as cognitive learning. The learning of two or more concepts without conditioning is known as rote learning. Having seen the headline 'Lemsip is for flu attacks', the consumer may remember that Lemsip is a remedy for flu attacks without the kinds of conditioning and reinforcement previously discussed. Vicarious learning involves learning from others without direct experience or reward. It is the promise of the reward that motivates. Thus we may learn the type of clothes that attract potential admirers by observing other people. In advertising, the 'admiring glance' can be used to signal approval of the type of clothing being worn or the alcoholic beverage being consumed. We imagine that the same may happen to us if we dress in a similar manner or drink a similar drink. Reasoning is a more complex form of cognitive learning and is usually associated with high-involvement situations. For example, some advertising messages rely on the recipient to draw their own conclusions, through reasoning. An anti-Richard Nixon ad campaign in the USA used a photograph of Nixon under the tag-line 'Would You Buy a Used Car From This Man?' to dissuade people from voting for him in the presidential election.
Whatever the type of learning that has taken place, the creation of product positioning is the result of the learning process. The market objective is to create a clear and favourable position in the mind of the consumer.