4. Results

Function: The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key results, without interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both illustrative materials (Tables and Figures) and text. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant Tables or Figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the Table or Figure). The Results section should be organized around a series of Table and/or Figures sequenced to present your key findings in a logical order.

Style: Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. The passive voice will likely dominate here, but use the active voice as much as possible. Use the past tense. Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data here. The transition into interpretive language can be a slippery slope. Consider the following two examples:

• This example highlights the trend/difference that the author wants the reader to focus:

The duration of exposure to running water had a pronounced effect on cumulative seed germination percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative germination (84%), 1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls.

• In contrast, this example strays subtly into interpretation by referring to optimality (a conceptual model) and tieing the observed result to that idea:

The results of the germination experiment (Fig. 2) suggest that the optimal time for running-water treatment is 2 days. This group showed the highest cumulative germination (84%), with longer (5 d) or shorter (12 h) exposures producing smaller gains in germination when compared to the control group. 

Organize the results section based on the sequence of Table and Figures you'll include. Prepare the Tables and Figures as soon as all the data are analyzed and arrange them in the sequence that best presents your findings in a logical way. A good strategy is to note, on a draft of each Table or Figure, the one or two key results you want to addess in the text portion of the Results. Simple rules to follow related to Tables and Figures:

• Tables and Figures are assigned numbers separately and in the sequence that you will refer to them from the text.

  • The first Table you refer to is Table 1, the next Table 2 and so forth.

  • Similarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next Figure 2, etc.

• Each Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and other necessary information in a legend.

• Table legends go above the Table; tables are read from top to bottom.

• Figure legends go below the figure; figures are usually viewed from bottom to top.

• When referring to a Figure from the text, "Figure" is abbreviated as Fig., e.g., Fig. 1. Table is never abbreviated, e.g., Table 1.

Some problems to avoid:

• Do not reiterate each value from a Figure or Table – only the key result or trends that each conveys.

• Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure – this is considered redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best shows the result and go with it.

Report negative results – they are important! If you did not get the anticipated results, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated, or perhaps you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. In either case, your results may be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected are necessarily "bad data". If you carried out the work well, they are simply your results and need interpretation. Many important discoveries can be traced to "bad data".

Always enter the appropriate units when reporting data or summary statistics.

• for an individual value you would write, "the mean length was 10 m", or, "the maximum time was 140 min."

• When including a measure of variability, place the unit after the error value, e.g., "...was 10 ± 2.3 m".

• Likewise place the unit after the last in a series of numbers all having the same unit. For example: "lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m", or "no differences were observed after 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. of incubation".