Spinal Cord

The spinal cord comes off the base of the brain, runs throughout the cervical and thoracic spine, and ends at the lower part of the thoracic spine. Therefore, spinal cord injury or damage may accompany trauma or diseases of the cervical spine or thoracic spine.

The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than the length of the bony spinal column.

The human spinal cord is about 43-45 cm long and approximately as wide as a human finger. There are 13,500,000 neurons that transmit electro-chemical signals in the spinal cord.

Spinal Cord Vertebrae:

- 7 cervical (neck) segments

- 12 thoracic segments

- 5 lumbar segments

- 5 sacral segments

- 4 fused coccygeal segments

The spinal cord is protected by three layers of tissue, called spinal meninges, that surround the canal. The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the surrounding bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space. The epidural space is filled with adipose tissue, and it contains a network of blood vessels. The arachnoid mater is the middle protective layer. Its name comes from the fact that the tissue has a spiderweb-like appearance. The space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The medical procedure known as a lumbar puncture involves use of a needle to withdraw cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space, usually from the lumbar region of the spine.

In cross-section, the peripheral region of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor neurons. Internal to this peripheral region is the gray, butterfly-shaped central region made up of nerve cell bodies.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

spinal cord cervical thoracic spine bony spinal column lumbar segments sacral segments fused coccygeal segments layers of tissue epidural space adipose tissue arachnoid mater protective layer subarachnoid space in cross-section

спинний мозок шийний грудного відділ хребта кістковий стовбур хребта поперекові сегменти крижові сегменти злиті куприкові сегменти шари тканини епідуральний простір жирова тканина павутинний, арахноїдальний захисний шар субарахноїдальний простір в поперечному перерізі

Translate the English proverbs and give Ukrainian equivalents

1. “Conscience does make cowards of us”

2. “An idle brain is the devil’s workshop”

3. “Time and thinking tame the strongest grief”

4. “Better pay the butcher than the doctor”

5. “Where ignorance is bliss it is fully to be wise”

6. “There is no medicine to cure stupidity”

Learn these words combinations. Make up sentences to show you understand the meaning

brain wave – прекрасна думка

to be head over heels (in love) – бути по вуха закоханим

to have a good head on one’s shoulders - мати голову на плечах

to be above one’s head – вище розуміння

to lay heads together - обговорювати разом

to lose one’s head – втратити голову

to make a tail of smth. - взяти в толк

to take into one’s head – спало на думку

Use these questions to make a dialogue

Do you often have spells of severe dizziness?

Have you at times had a twitching of the face, head or shoulders?

Are your joints painfully swollen?

Do your muscles and joints constantly feel stiff?

Do pains in the back make it hard for you to keep up with your work?

Have you ever had a spinal puncture?

Do your hands go where you want them to go?

Have you noticed any change in your ability to feel things with your hands or arms?

Are you troubled by numbness, prickling or tingling in your finger tips?

Do your hands always sweat a great deal?

Were you ever knocked unconscious?

Brain

T he human brain  has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but has a more developed cortex than any other. Large animals such as whales and elephants have larger brains in absolute terms, but when measured using the encephalization quotient which compensates for body size, the human brain is almost twice as large as the brain of the bottlenose dolphin, and three times as large as the brain of a chimpanzee. Much of the expansion comes from the part of the brain called the cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes, which are associated with executive functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The portion of the cerebral cortex devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.

The human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of neural tissue that covers most of the brain. This layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface that can fit into the volume available. The pattern of folds is similar across individuals, although there are many small variations. The cortex is divided into four "lobes", called the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. (Some classification systems also include a limbic lobe and treat the insular cortex as a lobe.) Within each lobe are numerous cortical areas, each associated with a particular function such as vision, motor control, language, etc. The left and right sides of the cortex are broadly similar in shape, and most cortical areas are replicated on both sides. Some areas, though, show strong lateralization, particularly areas that are involved in language. In most people, the left hemisphere is "dominant" for language, with the right hemisphere playing only a minor role. There are other functions, such as spatiotemporal reasoning, for which the right hemisphere is usually dominant.

Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the human brain is susceptible to damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such as a blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a variety of chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of the brain, though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which protect it. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and depression, are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.

Scientifically, the techniques that are used to study the human brain differ in important ways from those that are used to study the brains of other mammals. On the one hand, invasive techniques such as inserting electrodes into the brain, or disabling parts of the brain in order to examine the effect on behavior, are used with non-human species, but for ethical reasons, are generally not performed with humans. On the other hand, humans are the only subjects who can respond to complex verbal instructions. Thus, it is often possible to use non-invasive techniques such as functional neuroimaging or EEG recording more productively with humans than with non-humans. Furthermore, some of the most important topics, such as language, can hardly be studied at all except in humans. In many cases, human and non-human studies form essential complements to each other. Individual brain cells (except where tissue samples are taken for biopsy for suspected brain tumors) can only be studied in non-humans; complex cognitive tasks can only be studied in humans. Combining the two sources of information to yield a complete functional understanding of the human brain is an ongoing challenge for neuroscience.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

cerebral cortex frontal lobe parietal lobe temporal lobe occipital lobe limbic lobe folds lateralization right/left hemisphere spatiotemporal reasoning skull cerebrospinal fluid multiple sclerosis essential complements brain tumors cognitive tasks

кора головного мозку лобова частка тім'яна частка скронева частка потилична частка лімбічної частки звивини латерализація права / ліва півкуля просторово-часове міркування череп спинномозкова рідина розсіяний склероз важливе доповнення пухлини головного мозку пізнавальні завдання

Dreams

Dreams are successions of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. The content and purpose of dreams are not definitively understood, though they have been a topic of scientific speculation, as well as a subject of philosophical and religious interest, throughout recorded history. The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology. Scientists believe that, in addition to humans, certain birds and the majority of mammals also dream.

Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. REM sleep is revealed by continuous movements of the eyes during sleep. At times, dreams may occur during other stages of sleep. However, these dreams tend to be much less vivid or memorable.

Dreams can last for a few seconds, or as long as twenty minutes. People are more likely to remember the dream if they are awakened during the REM phase. The average person has about 3 to 5 dreams per night, but some may have up to 7 dreams in one night. The dreams tend to last longer as the night progresses. During a full 8-hour night sleep, two hours of it is spent dreaming.

Dreams have been seen as a connection to the unconscious. They range from normal and ordinary to overly surreal and bizarre. Dreams can have varying natures, such as frightening, exciting, magical, melancholic, adventurous, or sexual. The events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware. Dreams can at times make a c reative thought occur to the person or give a sense of inspiration.

Opinions about the meaning of dreams have varied and shifted through time and culture. Dream interpretations date back to 5000-4000 BC. The earliest recorded dreams were acquired from materials dating back approximately 5,000 years, in Mesopotamia, where they were documented on clay tablets. In the Greek and Roman periods, the people believed that dreams were direct messages from the gods, or from the dead and that they predicted the future. Some cultures practiced dream incubation with the intention of cultivating dreams that are prophetic.

The Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who developed the discipline of psychoanalysis, wrote extensively about dream theories and interpretations. He explained dreams as manifestations of our deepest desires and anxieties, often relating to repressed childhood memories or obsessions. In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud developed a psychological technique to interpret dreams and devised a series of guidelines to understand the symbols and motifs that appear in our dreams.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

succession sensation scientific speculations mammal rapid-eye movement memorable unconscious bizarre lucid dreaming to predict the future prophetic obsession

послідовність відчуття наукові міркування ссавець швидкий рух очей що запам’ятовується несвідомий дивний усвідомлені сновидіння передбачати майбутнє пророчий одержимість