Questions

1. Suggest three different ways in which the word might be used.

2. What is a morpheme?

3. Distinguish between inflection and derivation.

4. What is the difference between phonologically conditioned allomorphs and lexically conditioned allomorphs?

5. How might one identify word classes?

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7

Sentence patterns

Words by themselves, or words strung together in a random way, are of relatively little use, a fact known by anyone who has visited a for­eign country armed only with a dictionary, and no knowledge of the language. Does me - bus mean 'I am a bus', 'A bus hit me', 'I came by bus', or 'I want to go by bus? So let us now look at how words may be combined together into longer utterances.

In this chapter, we shall consider, first, the ways in which words may be linked together to form larger units. Second, we shall discuss how to analyze sentences into their component parts, or constituents in linguistic terminology. Third, we shall suggest ways of represent­ing this analysis.

Linking words together

Different languages use different devices for showing the relationship of one word to another. Most languages have one or two favourite devices. The following are especially common.

Word order

The device used most frequently in English is word order:

The large spider frightened Aunt Matilda. Aunt Matilda frightened the large spider.

The words themselves in these two sentences are identical. It is the

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word order which indicates who frightened whom, and that it is the spider which is large, not Aunt Matilda. Languages which rely heavily on word order are known as configurational languages.

Inflections

In a language such as Latin, word endings or inflections, indicate the relationship between words. In the sentence:

Magna aranea perterruit Matildam amitam.

(Large spider frightened Matilda aunt)

'The large spider frightened Aunt Matilda'.

the word order is irrelevant. The sentence would still mean the same if the words were arranged quite differently as in:

Magna Matildam perterruit amitam aranea.

(Large Matilda frightened Aunt spider)

The endings alone show that it was the spider which terrified Aunt Matilda, not the reverse, and that it is the spider, not Aunt Matilda, which is large. In linguistic terminology, Latin is a non-configurational language. Word order is not critical, though some word order preferences are found.

Function words

Another common device, used to some extent in both English and Latin, is the use of function words. These are words such as of, by, that, which indicate relationships between parts of the sentence:

Aunt Matilda was terrified by a spider.

The Queen of Sheba.

I know that Penelope will come.

Matilda amita ab aranea perterrita est.

(Matilda-aunt-by-spider-frightened-is[was]

There is some disagreement as to what counts as a function word in English. Part of the problem is that several English words, such as to, can be used both as a function word, and as a content word (one with intrinsic meaning):

Paul wants to go home, (function word)

Peter went to the river, (content word 'towards' 'as far as')

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In addition, there are borderline cases, where to does not fit well into either type of usage:

Andrew's suit was made to order. It seems to me a good idea.