Questions

Test yourself on what you have read in Chapter 1 by answering the following questions:

1 How would you define linguistics?

2 Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional school grammar.

3 What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?

4 Why do linguists regard speech rather than writing as primary?

5 Briefly explain the terms phonology, syntax and semantics.

6 Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic linguistics.

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2

What is language?

Linguistics can be defined as 'the systematic study of language' - a discipline which describes language in all its aspects and formulates theories as to how it works.

But what exactly is language? People often use the word in a very wide sense: 'the language of flowers', 'the language of music', 'body language' and so on. This book, in common with most linguistics books, uses the word to mean the specialized sound signalling system which seems to be genetically programmed to develop in humans. Humans can, of course, communicate in numerous other ways: they can wink, wave, smile, tap someone on the shoulder, and so on. This wider study, which overlaps with linguistics, is not the concern of this book. It is usually known as 'the psychology of communication', and reading on the topic is suggested on p. 211.

It is also clear that humans can transfer language to various other media: written symbols, braille, sign language, and so on. Sign lan­guage in particular has interesting characteristics which are not all predictable from the spoken word. However, language based on sound is more widespread, and perhaps more basic, and so has been given priority in this book.

But can language be defined? And how can it be distinguished from other systems of animal communication? A useful approach was pioneered by the American linguist Charles Hockett. This is to make a list of design features, and to consider whether they are shared by other animals. Some important ones will be discussed in the next few pages.

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Use of sound signals

When animals communicate with one another, they may do so by a variety of means. Crabs, for example, communicate by waving their claws at one another, and bees have a complicated series of 'dances' which signify the whereabouts of a source of nectar.

But such methods are not as widespread as the use of sounds, which are employed by humans, grasshoppers, birds, dolphins, cows, monkeys, and many other species. So our use of sound is in no way unique. Sound signals have several advantages. They can be used in the dark, and at some distance, they allow a wide variety of messages to be sent, and they leave the body free for other activities.

Humans probably acquired their sound signalling system at a fairly late stage in their evolution. This seems likely because all the organs used in speech have some more basic function. The lungs are primarily used for breathing. Teeth, lips and tongue are primarily for eating. The vocal cords (thin strips of membrane deep in the throat) were used primarily for closing off the lungs in order to make the rib cage rigid for actions requiring a great effort. When people lift something heavy, they automatically hold their breath. This is caused by the closing of the vocal cords. The grunt when the heavy object is dropped is caused by the air being expelled as the vocal cords open. Millions of years ago we possibly needed a rigid rib cage for swinging in the trees - but humans still need this mechanism today for such actions as weightlifting, defecation and childbirth.