2. Explain the difference between two types of models: rational and non-rational.

3. Write out advantages and disadvantages of group decision making. Comment them.

Read text 3 and enumerate the approaches to motivation discussed there.

Text 3. Motivation

Motivation is the force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior, and underlies the tendency to per­sist. Early efforts by Frederick Taylor to use money and by the human relations school of management to use attention to workers and group dynamics as motivators on extremely routine, specialized jobs met with only limited success. Since then, more sophisticated ap­proaches have centered on several major elements in the motivation process: needs, cognitive activities, and re­ward and reinforcement issues.

Need theories argue that we behave the way we do because we have internal needs that we are attempting to fulfill. These theories are sometimes called content theories because they focus on what motivates others. Maslow's widely known hierarchy of needs theory ar­gues that our needs form a five-level hierarchy, ranging from physiological to self-actualization needs. ERG the­ory updates Maslow's approach by proposing three need levels and including a frustration-regression prin­ciple in addition to the satisfaction-progression explana­tion of movement among need levels. Herzberg offers a two-factor theory that has helped emphasize the impor­tance of factors included in the motivator categories. However, research has cast doubt on the wisdom of viewing his hygiene factors as useful only in keeping employees from being dissatisfied. While the hierarchy of needs, two-factor, and ERG theories view certain needs as inherent, McClelland's acquired-needs theory argues that needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life experiences. His work has focused particularly on needs for achievement, affiliation, and power, as well as on how these needs affect managerial success.

Cognitive theories, sometimes called process theo­ries, attempt to isolate the thinking patterns that we use in deciding whether or not to behave in a certain way. Expectancy theory posits that in deciding how much effort to expend in a given direction, we consider effort-performance expectancy (the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level), performance-outcome expectancy (the probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes), and valence (the anticipated value of the various outcomes or rewards). As the expanded model of expectancy theory suggests, managers need to consider all three elements in achieving both high performance and high job satisfaction among employees. Equity theory indicates that we prefer situations of balance, or equity, which occurs when we perceive the ratio of our inputs and outcomes to be equal to the ratio of inputs and outcomes of a comparison other (or others). Goal-setting theory highlights the importance of goal commitment, specific and challenging goals, and feedback. Goal setting works by directing attention and action, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and encouraging the development of strategies to achieve the goals.

Reinforcement theory argues that our behavior can be explained by consequences in the environment. The four major types of reinforcement are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. Schedules of reinforcement specify the basis for and timing of positive rewards and include fixed-interval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, and variable-ratio schedules. Social learning theory argues that learning occurs through the continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviors, various personal factors, and environmental forces. Three cognitively related processes are particularly important: symbolic processes, vicarious learning, and self-control. Social learning theory is useful in explaining both the creation of innovative ideas and their acquisition and adoption through the diffusion of innovation.

Make written translation of text 4.

Text 4.