Latent prints

The term «latent» means hidden, not apparent. For the purpose of police terminology and usage, however, a latent print (visible or invisi­ble) is one which is obtained in connection with an investigation involv­ing identification.

A latent print may be defined as the anatomical record, made by bodily contact, of and from the crests of the papillary ridges which are located on the palmar and plantar surfaces of the body.

Three general types of friction ridge prints may be obtained in connection with an investigation: visible, plastic, and latent.

Visible prints are those which have been made by transferring a foreign colored substance, such as ink, blood, etc., from the crests of the papillary ridges to the object touched.

Plastic or moulded imprints, also readily discernible, are depth impressions of the ridge design in a soft medium, such as thick dust, blood, grease, etc.

True latent prints are those which are made by the natural skin se­cretions such as perspiration, sebaceous oil, or by some colorless foreign substance.

It should be kept in mind that any palmar or plantar skin design will serve to positively identify a person, and it will be accepted and recognized by the courts as being conclusive evidence of identity.

Frequently a latent print is the only evidence available which will serve to identify a perpetrator with his crime.

The identification, apprehension, and successful prosecution of numerous criminals have been effected solely because a small friction ridge print was obtained during the investigation.

A thorough search of the crime scene should be conducted, and recovered evidence should be examined in an effort to secure latent prints, if such are present.

Theoretically, most surfaces with which the human skin comes in contact are capable of retaining latent prints. There is no guarantee, however, that an identifiable print will be found.

It would be ideal if a search for latent prints at every crime scene could be conducted by a lab expert, but until such time becomes prac­tical and possible, the field officer must look particularly for those sur­faces which, from experience, he may expect to be most productive in retaining friction ridge evidence.

In order to determine if there are items which possibly may bear latent prints, the officer should question the victim and witnesses care­fully, and should also rely upon his own observations, experience, imagination, and logical deduction.

Unit 11. The study of crime

Text 1: Match the following headings with the sections of the text below:

• History

• Application

• Techniques

• Subject

• Objectives

Criminology

1. Criminology is a social science dealing with the nature, extent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.

2. The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behaviour and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives, criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields.

(3) Criminology originated in the late 18^th century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanize penal institutions. During the 19^th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to the understanding of crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasized case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the 'social defense' movement, stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and the rights of society.

4. Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. The typological method involves classifying offences, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas.

5. Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions.

Exercise 1: Find in the text the English equivalents for the following:

1. криминология рассматривает природу и причины преступлений;

2. изучение обстоятельств правонарушения по материалам дела;

3. криминология опирается на открытия других наук;

4. проблемы задержания преступников;

5. проблемы предотвращения преступлений;

6. применение на практике;

7. исправительные учреждения;

8. установить причины преступности;

9. выработать действующие принципы;

10. смягчить наказание;

11. подвергнуть сомнению

Exercise 2: Replace the words and expressions in bold type with the words and expressions that mean the same:

1. The objectives of criminology and criminalistics are rather different.

2. The system of penal institutions is to be reformed.

3. The scientific study of criminals originated in the late 18^th century.

4. Modern criminologists hold that criminals are shaped by a multiplicity of factors.

5. Criminology studies the factors that lead to violent behav­iour.

Exercise 3: Match the legal terms on the left with their definitions on the right.

1. deterrence	a) guidance and instruction given to offenders, their beneficial treatment aimed at restitution of positive skills and attitudes
2. case study	b) measures taken to prevent hostile action
3. legislator	c) a person serving a prison sentence
4. retribution	d) a detailed analysis of a criminal person or group
5. convict	e) a member of a body which gives or makes laws
6. rehabilitation	f) something given or demanded in repayment, especially punishment

Text 2: Read the text and write down the Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type: