Text 17: the origins of the civil service system

When the United States began to establish its civil service system in the 19th century, it had a long history upon which to draw. Historians believe that public government officials — civil servants — date back to the early civilizations of the Middle East. The longest stable civil service in history, however, first developed in China.

China's civil service established and elaborated the world's greatest system of hiring personnel on competitive basis. The idea to merit rating for promotions, which is a characteristic of modern civil service systems, also originated within the Chinese system.

The basic characteristic of China's civil service system was an educated and honest bureaucracy. Candidates were tested not only on their grasp of specific topics of government but also on their knowledge of history, literature, poetry, and art. Frequently, only 1 out of every 100 candidates passed the examinations and won a position. Every several years thereafter, officeholders were tested again. The results, along with periodic merit ratings based on job performance, determined whether they received a promotion, retained their present level, or were dismissed.

Some type of civil service examinations became an accepted practice in many later civil systems. Today the civil service in the United States shares some of the characteristics common to the systems of China, Great Britain, and some other European nations. In particular, they share the concepts of examinations for appointment and promotions based on merit. At the same time, the United States civil service maintains individual characteristics based on the American system of government and values.

Text 18: the concept of bicameral legislature

In the waning years of the nineteenth century, political scientist and future President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, spoke to an audience and outlined his views of the American government. "Our Government, he said, founded one hundred years ago, was no type of an experiment in advanced democracy, as we allowed Europe and even our­selves to suppose; it was simply an adoption of English constitutional system of government."

One aspect of the United States' English heritage is bicameralism. The concept of bicameralism — a two-house legislature — originated in England and came with the early English colonists to North America. Bicameralism emerged in England's Parliament. During the 1200s the Great Council that included English nobles and bishops advised the monarch. Knights and elected representatives from towns and regions also met with the Great Council. In the 1300s the elected members and the nobility and bishops began to meet separately, and Parliament became a two-house legislature that included the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Slowly, the Commons gained strength; first by winning the right to discuss tax laws, and later by assuming the power to introduce bills.

After the Civil War and the execution of Charles I, Parliament gained control of the government. Then in 1660 Parliament restored the monarchy. By the 1700s nations of the Western world admired and envied Great Britain for its democracy and stability. It was the shining example of the political theory of a balanced government.

The pure forms of government, as historian Bernard Bailyn noted, were monarchy, the rule of one; aristocracy, the rule of the few; and democracy, the rule of many or all. All three forms in the course of history had degenerated repeatedly into their evil counterparts: tyranny, oligarchy, and mob rule. But some success could be achieved by mixing elements of these pure forms.